Drugs and alcohol, dependence and recovery.
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Qurʾān
القرآن6 shownVerses named for this subject by hand come first. The rest are found by the subject’s own Arabic and English senses and are shown as lexical matches, not as anchors anyone has confirmed.
Qur'ān 2:219Arabic sense: الخمر, خمر | English sense: intoxicant
۞يَسۡـَٔلُونَكَ عَنِ ٱلۡخَمۡرِ وَٱلۡمَيۡسِرِۖ قُلۡ فِيهِمَآ إِثۡمࣱ كَبِيرࣱ وَمَنَٰفِعُ لِلنَّاسِ وَإِثۡمُهُمَآ أَكۡبَرُ مِن نَّفۡعِهِمَاۗ وَيَسۡـَٔلُونَكَ مَاذَا يُنفِقُونَۖ قُلِ ٱلۡعَفۡوَۗ كَذَٰلِكَ يُبَيِّنُ ٱللَّهُ لَكُمُ ٱلۡأٓيَٰتِ لَعَلَّكُمۡ تَتَفَكَّرُونَ
They ask you [Prophet] about intoxicants and gambling: say, ‘There is great sin in both, and some benefit for people: the sin is greater than the benefit.’ They ask you what they should give: say, ‘Give what you can spare.’ In this way, God makes His messages clear to you, so that you may reflect
Qur'ān 5:90Arabic sense: الخمر, خمر | English sense: intoxicant
يَٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓاْ إِنَّمَا ٱلۡخَمۡرُ وَٱلۡمَيۡسِرُ وَٱلۡأَنصَابُ وَٱلۡأَزۡلَٰمُ رِجۡسࣱ مِّنۡ عَمَلِ ٱلشَّيۡطَٰنِ فَٱجۡتَنِبُوهُ لَعَلَّكُمۡ تُفۡلِحُونَ
You who believe, intoxicants and gambling, idolatrous practices, and [divining with] arrows are repugnant acts- Satan’s doing- shun them so that you may prosper
Qur'ān 5:91English sense: intoxicant | Arabic sense: الخمر, خمر
إِنَّمَا يُرِيدُ ٱلشَّيۡطَٰنُ أَن يُوقِعَ بَيۡنَكُمُ ٱلۡعَدَٰوَةَ وَٱلۡبَغۡضَآءَ فِي ٱلۡخَمۡرِ وَٱلۡمَيۡسِرِ وَيَصُدَّكُمۡ عَن ذِكۡرِ ٱللَّهِ وَعَنِ ٱلصَّلَوٰةِۖ فَهَلۡ أَنتُم مُّنتَهُونَ
With intoxicants and gambling, Satan seeks only to incite enmity and hatred among you, and to stop you remembering God and prayer. Will you not give them up
Qur'ān 12:41Arabic sense: خمر | English sense: wine
يَٰصَٰحِبَيِ ٱلسِّجۡنِ أَمَّآ أَحَدُكُمَا فَيَسۡقِي رَبَّهُۥ خَمۡرࣰ اۖ وَأَمَّا ٱلۡأٓخَرُ فَيُصۡلَبُ فَتَأۡكُلُ ٱلطَّيۡرُ مِن رَّأۡسِهِۦۚ قُضِيَ ٱلۡأَمۡرُ ٱلَّذِي فِيهِ تَسۡتَفۡتِيَانِ
Fellow prisoners, one of you will serve his master with wine; the other will be crucified and the birds will peck at his head. That is the end of the matter on which you asked my opinion.’
Qur'ān 47:15Arabic sense: خمر | English sense: wine
مَّثَلُ ٱلۡجَنَّةِ ٱلَّتِي وُعِدَ ٱلۡمُتَّقُونَۖ فِيهَآ أَنۡهَٰرࣱ مِّن مَّآءٍ غَيۡرِ ءَاسِنࣲ وَأَنۡهَٰرࣱ مِّن لَّبَنࣲ لَّمۡ يَتَغَيَّرۡ طَعۡمُهُۥ وَأَنۡهَٰرࣱ مِّنۡ خَمۡرࣲ لَّذَّةࣲ لِّلشَّٰرِبِينَ وَأَنۡهَٰرࣱ مِّنۡ عَسَلࣲ مُّصَفࣰّ ىۖ وَلَهُمۡ فِيهَا مِن كُلِّ ٱلثَّمَرَٰتِ وَمَغۡفِرَةࣱ مِّن رَّبِّهِمۡۖ كَمَنۡ هُوَ خَٰلِدࣱ فِي ٱلنَّارِ وَسُقُواْ مَآءً حَمِيمࣰ ا فَقَطَّعَ أَمۡعَآءَهُمۡ
Here is a picture of the Garden promised to the pious: rivers of water forever pure, rivers of milk forever fresh, rivers of wine, a delight for those who drink, rivers of honey clarified and pure, [all] flow in it; there they will find fruit of every kind; and they will find forgiveness from their Lord. How can this be compared to the fate of those stuck in the Fire, given boiling water to drink that tears their bowels
Qur'ān 12:36Arabic sense: خمر
وَدَخَلَ مَعَهُ ٱلسِّجۡنَ فَتَيَانِۖ قَالَ أَحَدُهُمَآ إِنِّيٓ أَرَىٰنِيٓ أَعۡصِرُ خَمۡرࣰ اۖ وَقَالَ ٱلۡأٓخَرُ إِنِّيٓ أَرَىٰنِيٓ أَحۡمِلُ فَوۡقَ رَأۡسِي خُبۡزࣰ ا تَأۡكُلُ ٱلطَّيۡرُ مِنۡهُۖ نَبِّئۡنَا بِتَأۡوِيلِهِۦٓۖ إِنَّا نَرَىٰكَ مِنَ ٱلۡمُحۡسِنِينَ
Two young men went into prison alongside him. One of them said, ‘I dreamed that I was pressing grapes’; the other said, ‘I dreamed that I was carrying bread on my head and that the birds were eating it.’ [They said], ‘Tell us what this means- we can see that you are a knowledgeable man.’
Research library, full list
526 to 550 of 1,310Without Wasting a Word: Extreme Improvements in Efficiency and Accuracy Using Computerized Adaptive Testing for Mental Health Disorders (CAT-MH).
Purpose of review: We review recent literature on the adaptive assessment of complex mental health disorders and provide a detailed comparison of classical test theory and adaptive testing based on multidimensional item response theory.
Recent findings: Adaptive tests for a wide variety of mental health traits (e.g., depression, anxiety, mania, substance misuse, suicidality) are now available in a cloud-based environment. These tests have been validated in a variety of settings against lengthy structured clinical interviews with excellent results and even higher reliability than fixed-length tests. Applications include screening and assessments in emergency departments, psychiatric and primary care clinics, student health clinics, perinatal medicine clinics, child welfare settings, and the judicial system. The future of mental health measurement will be based on automated screening and a…
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Medial prefrontal cortex in neurological diseases.
The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is a crucial cortical region that integrates information from numerous cortical and subcortical areas and converges updated information to output structures. It plays essential roles in the cognitive process, regulation of emotion, motivation, and sociability. Dysfunction of the mPFC has been found in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and addiction. In the present review, we summarize the preclinical and clinical studies to illustrate the role of the mPFC in these neurological diseases.
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Lisdahl KM, Sher KJ, Conway KP, Gonzalez R, Feldstein Ewing SW, Nixon SJ, Tapert S, Bartsch H, Goldstein RZ, Heitzeg M (2018)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usDevelopmental cognitive neuroscience282 citations Adolescent brain cognitive development (ABCD) study: Overview of substance use assessment methods.
One of the objectives of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (https://abcdstudy.org/) is to establish a national longitudinal cohort of 9 and 10 year olds that will be followed for 10 years in order to prospectively study the risk and protective factors influencing substance use and its consequences, examine the impact of substance use on neurocognitive, health and psychosocial outcomes, and to understand the relationship between substance use and psychopathology. This article provides an overview of the ABCD Study Substance Use Workgroup, provides the goals for the workgroup, rationale for the substance use battery, and includes details on the substance use module methods and measurement tools used during baseline, 6-month and 1-year follow-up assessment time-points. Prospective, longitudinal assessment of these substance use domains over a period of ten years in a n…
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21st century neurobehavioral theories of decision making in addiction: Review and evaluation.
This review critically examines neurobehavioral theoretical developments in decision making in addiction in the 21st century. We specifically compare each theory reviewed to seven benchmarks of theoretical robustness, based on their ability to address: why some commodities are addictive; developmental trends in addiction; addiction-related anhedonia; self-defeating patterns of behavior in addiction; why addiction co-occurs with other unhealthy behaviors; and, finally, means for the repair of addiction. We have included only self-contained theories or hypotheses which have been developed or extended in the 21st century to address decision making in addiction. We thus review seven distinct theories of decision making in addiction: learning theories, incentive-sensitization theory, dopamine imbalance and systems models, opponent process theory, strength models of self-control failure, the c…
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Adolescent neurocognitive development and impacts of substance use: Overview of the adolescent brain cognitive development (ABCD) baseline neurocognition battery.
Adolescence is characterized by numerous social, hormonal and physical changes, as well as a marked increase in risk-taking behaviors. Dual systems models attribute adolescent risk-taking to tensions between developing capacities for cognitive control and motivational strivings, which may peak at this time. A comprehensive understanding of neurocognitive development during the adolescent period is necessary to permit the distinction between premorbid vulnerabilities and consequences of behaviors such as substance use. Thus, the prospective assessment of cognitive development is fundamental to the aims of the newly launched Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) Consortium. This paper details the rationale for ABC'lected measures of neurocognition, presents preliminary descriptive data on an initial sample of 2299 participants, and provides a context for how this large-scale pr…
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Volkow ND, Koob GF, Croyle RT, Bianchi DW, Gordon JA, Koroshetz WJ, Pérez-Stable EJ, Riley WT, Bloch MH, Conway K, Deeds BG, Dowling GJ, Grant S, Howlett KD, Matochik JA, Morgan GD, Murray MM, Noronha A, Spong CY, Wargo EM, Warren KR, Weiss SRB (2018)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usDevelopmental cognitive neuroscience841 citations The conception of the ABCD study: From substance use to a broad NIH collaboration.
Adolescence is a time of dramatic changes in brain structure and function, and the adolescent brain is highly susceptible to being altered by experiences like substance use. However, there is much we have yet to learn about how these experiences influence brain development, how they promote or interfere with later health outcomes, or even what healthy brain development looks like. A large longitudinal study beginning in early adolescence could help us understand the normal variability in adolescent brain and cognitive development and tease apart the many factors that influence it. Recent advances in neuroimaging, informatics, and genetics technologies have made it feasible to conduct a study of sufficient size and scope to answer many outstanding questions. At the same time, several Institutes across the NIH recognized the value of collaborating in such a project because of its ability t…
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Maternal substance use and child protection: a rapid evidence assessment of factors associated with loss of child care.
This article reviews the literature on the factors associated with mothers who use substances losing care of their children. A rapid evidence assessment was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses. Medline and PsycINFO databases were searched to identify primary research studies published in English during January 2000-September 2016. Studies were included if they presented individual, formal support (e.g., receiving substance use treatment) or informal support (e.g., receiving social and family support) factors associated with mothers who use substances retaining or losing care of their child/ren (losing care refers to child protection services placing child/ren under the custody of a family relative, foster care, child care institution, or adoption). Evaluation studies or trials of interventions were excluded as were studies t…
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Psychedelics as Medicines: An Emerging New Paradigm.
Scientific interest in serotonergic psychedelics (e.g., psilocybin and LSD; 5-HT2A receptor agonists) has dramatically increased within the last decade. Clinical studies administering psychedelics with psychotherapy have shown preliminary evidence of robust efficacy in treating anxiety and depression, as well as addiction to tobacco and alcohol. Moreover, recent research has suggested that these compounds have potential efficacy against inflammatory diseases through novel mechanisms, with potential advantages over existing antiinflammatory agents. We propose that psychedelics exert therapeutic effects for psychiatric disorders by acutely destabilizing local brain network hubs and global network connectivity via amplification of neuronal avalanches, providing the occasion for brain network "resetting" after the acute effects have resolved. Antiinflammatory effects may hold promise for eff…
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Substance use among men who have sex with men: patterns, motivations, impacts and intervention development need.
Objectives: In this narrative review we illustrate the patterns of substance use among gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men (MSM), including comparisons with heterosexual populations, subgroup analyses and settings of substance use. We also consider explanations and motivations for substance use and the impact of use on sexual health as well as wider health and well-being. Finally, we consider the implications for the provision of MSM-tailored substance use and harm reduction services.
Methods: We undertook a narrative review of diverse literature across the fields of public health, psychology and sociology to synthesise complex findings relating to the use and impacts of illicit drugs and alcohol among MSM. Attempts were made to draw on literature from across the globe, including all income settings.
Results: Global evidence relating to the use of substances among MSM is li…
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Benzodiazepine Use in Older Adults: Dangers, Management, and Alternative Therapies.
Several major medical and psychiatric organizations, including the American Geriatrics Society, advise against using benzodiazepines or nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics in older adults. Despite these recommendations, benzodiazepines continue to be massively prescribed to a group with the highest risk of serious adverse effects from these medications. This article summarizes legitimate reasons for prescribing benzodiazepines in the elderly, serious associated risks of prescribing them, particularly when not indicated, barriers physicians encounter in changing their prescription patterns, and evidence-based strategies on how to discontinue benzodiazepines in older patients. Although more research is needed, we propose several alternatives for treating insomnia and anxiety in older adults in primary care settings. These include nonpharmacological approaches such as sleep restriction-sleep compre…
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The increasing global health priority of substance use in young people.
Substance use in young people (aged 10-24 years) might disrupt key periods of transition that occur as the adolescent brain undergoes cognitive and emotional development, and key psychosocial transitions are made. Adolescence is the peak time for initiation of substance use, with tobacco and alcohol usually preceding the use of illicit drugs. Substantial variation is noted between countries in the levels, types, and sequences of substance use in young people, indicating that a young person's use of substances depends on their social context, drug availability, and their personal characteristics. The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2013 study suggests that the burden attributable to substance use increases substantially in adolescence and young adulthood. In young men aged 20-24 years, alcohol and illicit substance use are responsible for 14% of total health burden. Alcohol causes most hea…
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Adversity impacting on oxytocin and behaviour: timing matters.
The endogenous oxytocin system plays a vital role in facilitating parturition, lactation and social interaction in humans and other mammals. It also impacts on a number of important endocrine, immune and neurotransmitter systems. A well-regulated oxytocin system has been proposed to increase resilience, and therefore reduce the likelihood of an individual developing mental illness or substance dependence. This review discusses the adverse external influences that can modulate oxytocin receptor and protein levels and impact on substance use and mental health. The paper highlights the impact of adversity such as poor maternal care, parental substance use and child abuse or neglect. We review clinical and preclinical data on the impact of adversity on the basis of the time of exposure from infancy and early childhood, to adolescence, adulthood to older age. Previous research suggests that d…
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Chung EK, Siegel BS, Garg A, Conroy K, Gross RS, Long DA, Lewis G, Osman CJ, Jo Messito M, Wade R, Shonna Yin H, Cox J, Fierman AH (2016)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usCurrent problems in pediatric and adolescent health care190 citations Screening for Social Determinants of Health Among Children and Families Living in Poverty: A Guide for Clinicians.
Approximately 20% of all children in the United States live in poverty, which exists in rural, urban, and suburban areas. Thus, all child health clinicians need to be familiar with the effects of poverty on health and to understand associated, preventable, and modifiable social factors that impact health. Social determinants of health are identifiable root causes of medical problems. For children living in poverty, social determinants of health for which clinicians may play a role include the following: child maltreatment, child care and education, family financial support, physical environment, family social support, intimate partner violence, maternal depression and family mental illness, household substance abuse, firearm exposure, and parental health literacy. Children, particularly those living in poverty, exposed to adverse childhood experiences are susceptible to toxic stress and …
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Illicit drug use and its association with sexual risk behaviour among MSM: more questions than answers?
Purpose of review: Illicit drug use before or during sex - known as sexualized drug use (colloquially 'chemsex' or 'party and play') - has evolved as novel psychoactive substances have entered the market in many parts of the world. Here, we review key conceptual issues in associations between illicit drug use and sexual risk-behaviour in MSM.
Recent findings: Although many studies have confirmed that MSM use drugs with greater prevalence than the general population, evidence is of variable quality and a sampling frame is difficult to establish. Moreover, psychosocial hypotheses linking drug use and sexual risk, including cognitive escape and sensation seeking, are unsatisfactory and generally ignore strategic use of drugs for sexual aims. Person-level associations between drug use history and both sexual risk behaviour and HIV infection tend to be consistent around the world, but evidenc…
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Children's disaster reactions: the influence of family and social factors.
This review examines family (demographics, parent reactions and interactions, and parenting style) and social (remote effects, disaster media coverage, exposure to secondary adversities, and social support) factors that influence children's disaster reactions. Lower family socioeconomic status, high parental stress, poor parental coping, contact with media coverage, and exposure to secondary adversities have been associated with adverse outcomes. Social support may provide protection to children in the post-disaster environment though more research is needed to clarify the effects of certain forms of social support. The interaction of the factors described in this review with culture needs further exploration.
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The Brain on Drugs: From Reward to Addiction.
Advances in neuroscience identified addiction as a chronic brain disease with strong genetic, neurodevelopmental, and sociocultural components. We here discuss the circuit- and cell-level mechanisms of this condition and its co-option of pathways regulating reward, self-control, and affect. Drugs of abuse exert their initial reinforcing effects by triggering supraphysiologic surges of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens that activate the direct striatal pathway via D1 receptors and inhibit the indirect striato-cortical pathway via D2 receptors. Repeated drug administration triggers neuroplastic changes in glutamatergic inputs to the striatum and midbrain dopamine neurons, enhancing the brain's reactivity to drug cues, reducing the sensitivity to non-drug rewards, weakening self-regulation, and increasing the sensitivity to stressful stimuli and dysphoria. Drug-induced impairments are long …
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The role of adverse childhood experiences in cardiovascular disease risk: a review with emphasis on plausible mechanisms.
Childhood adversity, characterized by abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction, is a problem that exerts a significant impact on individuals, families, and society. Growing evidence suggests that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are associated with health decline in adulthood, including cardiovascular disease (CVD). In the current review, we first provide an overview of the association between ACEs and CVD risk, with updates on the latest epidemiological evidence. Second, we briefly review plausible pathways by which ACEs could influence CVD risk, including traditional risk factors and novel mechanisms. Finally, we highlight the potential implications of ACEs in clinical and public health. Information gleaned from this review should help physicians and researchers in better understanding potential long-term consequences of ACEs and considering adapting current strategies in treatmen…
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Interoception and drug addiction.
The role of interoception and its neural basis with relevance to drug addiction is reviewed. Interoception consists of the receiving, processing, and integrating body-relevant signals with external stimuli to affect ongoing motivated behavior. The insular cortex is the central nervous system hub to process and integrate these signals. Interoception is an important component of several addiction relevant constructs including arousal, attention, stress, reward, and conditioning. Imaging studies with drug-addicted individuals show that the insular cortex is hypo-active during cognitive control processes but hyperactive during cue reactivity and drug-specific, reward-related processes. It is proposed that interoception contributes to drug addiction by incorporating an "embodied" experience of drug uses together with the individual's predicted versus actual internal state to modulate approach…
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Adolescents, pregnancy, and mental health.
Study objective: Pregnancy during adolescence is a risk factor for adverse medical and psychosocial outcomes, including psychiatric illness. Psychiatric illness is linked with obstetric complications along with impaired maternal functioning in the postpartum period. This article provides a comprehensive review of the research examining the intersection of psychopathology and adolescent pregnancy and the postpartum period.
Design: A literature search was conducted using PubMed (Medline), PsycINFO, and CINAHL for articles published between 1990 and 2013 that examined depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, and psychosis during pregnancy and the postpartum period in adolescents age 21 years or younger. Articles were selected that covered the following topics: Prevalence or incidence, comorbidity, psychosocial correlates, birth outcomes, parenting, child outcomes, and psychosocial treatment. …
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Zisook S, Iglewicz A, Avanzino J, Maglione J, Glorioso D, Zetumer S, Seay K, Vahia I, Young I, Lebowitz B, Pies R, Reynolds C, Simon N, Shear MK (2014)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usCurrent psychiatry reports74 citations Bereavement: course, consequences, and care.
This paper discusses each of several potential consequences of bereavement. First, we describe ordinary grief, followed by a discussion of grief gone awry, or complicated grief (CG). Then, we cover other potential adverse outcomes of bereavement, each of which may contribute to, but are not identical with, CG: general medical comorbidity, mood disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and substance use.
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Selemon LD (2013)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usTranslational psychiatry278 citations A role for synaptic plasticity in the adolescent development of executive function.
Adolescent brain maturation is characterized by the emergence of executive function mediated by the prefrontal cortex, e.g., goal planning, inhibition of impulsive behavior and set shifting. Synaptic pruning of excitatory contacts is the signature morphologic event of late brain maturation during adolescence. Mounting evidence suggests that glutamate receptor-mediated synaptic plasticity, in particular long-term depression (LTD), is important for elimination of synaptic contacts in brain development. This review examines the possibility (1) that LTD mechanisms are enhanced in the prefrontal cortex during adolescence due to ongoing synaptic pruning in this late developing cortex and (2) that enhanced synaptic plasticity in the prefrontal cortex represents a key molecular substrate underlying the critical period for maturation of executive function. Molecular sites of interaction between e…
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Screening for substance abuse in women's health: a public health imperative.
Alcohol and drug use is a significant public health problem with particular implications for the health and safety of women. Women who abuse these substances are more likely to have untreated depression and anxiety and are at higher risk for intimate partner violence, homelessness, incarceration, infectious disease, and unplanned pregnancy. Substance abuse during pregnancy places both mother and fetus at risk for adverse perinatal outcomes. Data regarding the prevalence of substance abuse in women are conflicting and difficult to interpret. On the clinical level, strong arguments exist against routine urine drug testing and in favor of the use of validated instruments to screen women for drug and alcohol use both in primary women's health care and during pregnancy. A number of sex-specific screening tools are available for clinicians, some of which have also been validated for use during…
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Spicing things up: synthetic cannabinoids.
Rationale: Recently, products containing synthetic cannabinoids, collectively referred to as Spice, are increasingly being used recreationally.
Objectives: The availability, acute subjective effects-including self-reports posted on Erowid-laboratory detection, addictive potential, and regulatory challenges of the Spice phenomenon are reviewed.
Results: Spice is sold under the guise of potpourri or incense. Unlike delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the synthetic cannabinoids present in Spice are high-potency, high-efficacy, cannabinoid receptor full agonists. Since standard urine toxicology does not test for the synthetic cannabinoids in Spice, it is often used by those who want to avoid detection of drug use. These compounds have not yet been subjected to rigorous testing in humans. Acute psychoactive effects include changes in mood, anxiety, perception, thinking, memory, and attention. Adver…
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Koob GF (2013)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usCurrent opinion in neurobiology241 citations Negative reinforcement in drug addiction: the darkness within.
Drug seeking is associated with the activation of reward neural circuitry, but I argue that drug addiction also involves another major source of reinforcement, specifically negative reinforcement driven by the 'dark side' (i.e., a decrease in the function of normal reward-related neurocircuitry and persistent recruitment of the brain stress systems). This combination forms the antireward system or 'darkness within.' Understanding the neuroplasticity of the neurocircuitry that comprises the negative reinforcement associated with addiction is the key to understanding the vulnerability to the transition to addiction, misery of addiction, and persistence of addiction.
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The contextual brain: implications for fear conditioning, extinction and psychopathology.
Contexts surround and imbue meaning to events; they are essential for recollecting the past, interpreting the present and anticipating the future. Indeed, the brain's capacity to contextualize information permits enormous cognitive and behavioural flexibility. Studies of Pavlovian fear conditioning and extinction in rodents and humans suggest that a neural circuit including the hippocampus, amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex is involved in the learning and memory processes that enable context-dependent behaviour. Dysfunction in this network may be involved in several forms of psychopathology, including post-traumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia and substance abuse disorders.
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