Motivation, reward and anhedonia

يَٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓاْ إِذَا تَدَايَنتُم بِدَيۡنٍ إِلَىٰٓ أَجَلࣲ مُّسَمࣰّ ى فَٱكۡتُبُوهُۚ وَلۡيَكۡتُب بَّيۡنَكُمۡ كَاتِبُۢ بِٱلۡعَدۡلِۚ وَلَا يَأۡبَ كَاتِبٌ أَن يَكۡتُبَ كَمَا عَلَّمَهُ ٱللَّهُۚ فَلۡيَكۡتُبۡ وَلۡيُمۡلِلِ ٱلَّذِي عَلَيۡهِ ٱلۡحَقُّ وَلۡيَتَّقِ ٱللَّهَ رَبَّهُۥ وَلَا يَبۡخَسۡ مِنۡهُ شَيۡـࣰٔ اۚ فَإِن كَانَ ٱلَّذِي عَلَيۡهِ ٱلۡحَقُّ سَفِيهًا أَوۡ ضَعِيفًا أَوۡ لَا يَسۡتَطِيعُ أَن يُمِلَّ هُوَ فَلۡيُمۡلِلۡ وَلِيُّهُۥ بِٱلۡعَدۡلِۚ وَٱسۡتَشۡهِدُواْ شَهِيدَيۡنِ مِن رِّجَالِكُمۡۖ فَإِن لَّمۡ يَكُونَا رَجُلَيۡنِ فَرَجُلࣱ وَٱمۡرَأَتَانِ مِمَّن تَرۡضَوۡنَ مِنَ ٱلشُّهَدَآءِ أَن تَضِلَّ إِحۡدَىٰهُمَا فَتُذَكِّرَ إِحۡدَىٰهُمَا ٱلۡأُخۡرَىٰۚ وَلَا يَأۡبَ ٱلشُّهَدَآءُ إِذَا مَا دُعُواْۚ وَلَا تَسۡـَٔمُوٓاْ أَن تَكۡتُبُوهُ صَغِيرًا أَوۡ كَبِيرًا إِلَىٰٓ أَجَلِهِۦۚ ذَٰلِكُمۡ أَقۡسَطُ عِندَ ٱللَّهِ وَأَقۡوَمُ لِلشَّهَٰدَةِ وَأَدۡنَىٰٓ أَلَّا تَرۡتَابُوٓاْ إِلَّآ أَن تَكُونَ تِجَٰرَةً حَاضِرَةࣰ تُدِيرُونَهَا بَيۡنَكُمۡ فَلَيۡسَ عَلَيۡكُمۡ جُنَاحٌ أَلَّا تَكۡتُبُوهَاۗ وَأَشۡهِدُوٓاْ إِذَا تَبَايَعۡتُمۡۚ وَلَا يُضَآرَّ كَاتِبࣱ وَلَا شَهِيدࣱۚ وَإِن تَفۡعَلُواْ فَإِنَّهُۥ فُسُوقُۢ بِكُمۡۗ وَٱتَّقُواْ ٱللَّهَۖ وَيُعَلِّمُكُمُ ٱللَّهُۗ وَٱللَّهُ بِكُلِّ شَيۡءٍ عَلِيمࣱ‏

You who believe, when you contract a debt for a stated term, put it down in writing: have a scribe write it down justly between you. No scribe should refuse to write: let him write as God has taught him, let the debtor dictate, and let him fear God, his Lord, and not diminish [the debt] at all. If the debtor is feeble-minded, weak, or unable to dictate, then let his guardian dictate justly. Call in two men as witnesses. If two men are not there, then call one man and two women out of those you approve as witnesses, so that if one of the two women should forget the other can remind her. Let the witnesses not refuse when they are summoned. Do not disdain to write the debt down, be it small or large, along with the time it falls due: this way is more equitable in God’s eyes, more reliable as testimony, and more likely to prevent doubts arising between you. But if the merchandise is there and you hand it over, there is no blame on you if you do not write it down. Have witnesses present whenever you trade with one another, and let no harm be done to either scribe or witness, for if you did cause them harm, it would be a crime on your part. Be mindful of God, and He will teach you: He has full knowledge of everything

O you who believe when you contract when you are dealing with a debt such as in prepayment for future delivery of goods or a loan one upon another for a stated a known term write it down as confirmation and security against any dispute; and let a writer write it the contract of debt down between you justly accurately not increasing or decreasing the amount or the terms; and let not any writer refuse to write it down if he is requested for such a task as God has taught him the kāf of ka-mā ‘as’ is semantically connected to the verb ya’ba ‘refuse’ that is just as He has given him the advantage of knowing how to write he should not be niggardly in this respect; so let him write repeated for emphasis and let the debtor dictate to the one writing the contract for he is the one being witnessed and must be fully aware of his obligations; and let him fear God his Lord when dictating and not dimi

O you who believe! When you contract a debt for a fixed period, write it down. Let a scribe write it down in justice between you. Let not the scribe refuse to write, as Allah has taught him, so let him write. Let him (the debtor) who incurs the liability dictate, and he must have Taqwa of Allah, his Lord, and diminish not anything of what he owes. But if the debtor is of poor understanding, or weak, or is unable to dictate for himself, then let his guardian dictate in justice. And get two witnesses out of your own men. And if there are not two men (available), then a man and two women, such as you agree for witnesses, so that if one of them (two women) errs, the other can remind her. And the witnesses should not refuse when they are called (for evidence). You should not become weary to write it (your contract), whether it be small or big, for its fixed term, that is more just with Allah;

حَدَّثَنَا هَدَّابُ بْنُ خَالِدٍ، حَدَّثَنَا حَمَّادُ بْنُ سَلَمَةَ، ح وَحَدَّثَنِي زُهَيْرُ بْنُ حَرْبٍ، حَدَّثَنَا مُعَاذُ بْنُ مُعَاذٍ الْعَنْبَرِيُّ، ح وَحَدَّثَنِي مُحَمَّدُ بْنُ عَبْدِ الأَعْلَى، حَدَّثَنَا الْمُعْتَمِرُ، ح وَحَدَّثَنَا إِسْحَاقُ، بْنُ إِبْرَاهِيمَ أَخْبَرَنَا جَرِيرٌ، كُلُّهُمْ عَنْ سُلَيْمَانَ التَّيْمِيِّ، ح وَحَدَّثَنَا أَبُو كَامِلٍ، فُضَيْلُ بْنُ حُسَيْنٍ - وَاللَّفْظُ لَهُ - حَدَّثَنَا يَزِيدُ بْنُ زُرَيْعٍ، حَدَّثَنَا التَّيْمِيُّ، عَنْ أَبِي عُثْمَانَ، عَنْ أُسَامَةَ بْنِ زَيْدٍ، قَالَ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم ‏ "‏ قُمْتُ عَلَى بَابِ الْجَنَّةِ فَإِذَا عَامَّةُ مَنْ دَخَلَهَا الْمَسَاكِينُ وَإِذَا أَصْحَابُ الْجَدِّ مَحْبُوسُونَ إِلاَّ أَصْحَابَ النَّارِ فَقَدْ أُمِرَ بِهِمْ إِلَى النَّارِ وَقُمْتُ عَلَى بَابِ النَّارِ فَإِذَا عَامَّةُ مَنْ دَخَلَهَا النِّسَاءُ ‏"‏ ‏.‏

Usama b. Zaid reported that Allah's Messenger (way peace be upon him) said:I stood at the door of Paradise and I found that the overwhelming majority of those who entered therein was that of poor persons and the wealthy persons were detained to get into that. The denizens of Hell were commanded to get into Hell, and I stood upon the door of Fire and the majority amongst them who entered there was that of women

حَدَّثَنَا أَبُو كُرَيْبٍ، حَدَّثَنَا أَبُو أُسَامَةَ، عَنْ سَعِيدِ بْنِ أَبِي عَرُوبَةَ، سَمِعَ أَبَا رَجَاءٍ، عَنِ ابْنِ عَبَّاسٍ، قَالَ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم فَذَكَرَ مِثْلَهُ ‏.‏

This hadith is narrated likewise through another chain of transmitters

حَدَّثَنَا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ بْنُ مَسْلَمَةَ بْنِ قَعْنَبٍ، حَدَّثَنَا سُلَيْمَانُ، - يَعْنِي ابْنَ بِلاَلٍ - عَنْ جَعْفَرٍ، عَنْ أَبِيهِ، عَنْ جَابِرِ بْنِ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ، أَنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم مَرَّ بِالسُّوقِ دَاخِلاً مِنْ بَعْضِ الْعَالِيَةِ وَالنَّاسُ كَنَفَتَهُ فَمَرَّ بِجَدْىٍ أَسَكَّ مَيِّتٍ فَتَنَاوَلَهُ فَأَخَذَ بِأُذُنِهِ ثُمَّ قَالَ ‏"‏ أَيُّكُمْ يُحِبُّ أَنَّ هَذَا لَهُ بِدِرْهَمٍ ‏"‏ ‏.‏ فَقَالُوا مَا نُحِبُّ أَنَّهُ لَنَا بِشَىْءٍ وَمَا نَصْنَعُ بِهِ قَالَ ‏"‏ أَتُحِبُّونَ أَنَّهُ لَكُمْ ‏"‏ ‏.‏ قَالُوا وَاللَّهِ لَوْ كَانَ حَيًّا كَانَ عَيْبًا فِيهِ لأَنَّهُ أَسَكُّ فَكَيْفَ وَهُوَ مَيِّتٌ فَقَالَ ‏"‏ فَوَاللَّهِ لَلدُّنْيَا أَهْوَنُ عَلَى اللَّهِ مِنْ هَذَا عَلَيْكُمْ ‏"‏ ‏.‏

Jabir b. Abdullah reported that Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) happened to walk through the bazar coming from the side of 'Aliya and the people were on both his sides. There he found a dead lamb with very short ears. He took hold of his ear and said:Who amongst you would like to have this for a dirham? They said: We do not like to have it even for less than that as it is of no use to us. He said: Do you wish to have it (free of any cost)? They said: By Allah, even if it were alive (we would not have liked to possess that), for there is defect in it as its ear is very short; now it is dead also. Thereupon Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said: By Allah, this world is more insignificant in the eye of Allah than it (this dead lamb) is in your eye

حَدَّثَنِي مُحَمَّدُ بْنُ الْمُثَنَّى الْعَنَزِيُّ، وَإِبْرَاهِيمُ بْنُ مُحَمَّدِ بْنِ عَرْعَرَةَ السَّامِيُّ، قَالاَ حَدَّثَنَا عَبْدُ الْوَهَّابِ، - يَعْنِيَانِ الثَّقَفِيَّ - عَنْ جَعْفَرٍ، عَنْ أَبِيهِ، عَنْ جَابِرٍ، عَنِ النَّبِيِّ صلى الله عليه وسلم ‏.‏ بِمِثْلِهِ غَيْرَ أَنَّ فِي حَدِيثِ الثَّقَفِيِّ فَلَوْ كَانَ حَيًّا كَانَ هَذَا السَّكَكُ بِهِ عَيْبًا ‏.‏

Jabir reported Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) narrating a hadith like this with a slight variation of wording

حَدَّثَنَا الْمَكِّيُّ بْنُ إِبْرَاهِيمَ، أَخْبَرَنَا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ بْنُ سَعِيدٍ ـ هُوَ ابْنُ أَبِي هِنْدٍ ـ عَنْ أَبِيهِ، عَنِ ابْنِ عَبَّاسٍ ـ رضى الله عنهما ـ قَالَ قَالَ النَّبِيُّ صلى الله عليه وسلم ‏ "‏ نِعْمَتَانِ مَغْبُونٌ فِيهِمَا كَثِيرٌ مِنَ النَّاسِ، الصِّحَّةُ وَالْفَرَاغُ ‏"‏‏.‏ قَالَ عَبَّاسٌ الْعَنْبَرِيُّ حَدَّثَنَا صَفْوَانُ بْنُ عِيسَى، عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ سَعِيدِ بْنِ أَبِي هِنْدٍ، عَنْ أَبِيهِ، سَمِعْتُ ابْنَ عَبَّاسٍ، عَنِ النَّبِيِّ صلى الله عليه وسلم مِثْلَهُ‏.‏

Narrated Ibn `Abbas:The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "There are two blessings that many people are deceived into losing: health and free time

حَدَّثَنِي أَحْمَدُ بْنُ الْمِقْدَامِ، حَدَّثَنَا الْفُضَيْلُ بْنُ سُلَيْمَانَ، حَدَّثَنَا أَبُو حَازِمٍ، حَدَّثَنَا سَهْلُ بْنُ سَعْدٍ السَّاعِدِيُّ، كُنَّا مَعَ رَسُولِ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم فِي الْخَنْدَقِ وَهْوَ يَحْفِرُ وَنَحْنُ نَنْقُلُ التُّرَابَ وَيَمُرُّ بِنَا فَقَالَ ‏ "‏ اللَّهُمَّ لاَ عَيْشَ إِلاَّ عَيْشُ الآخِرَهْ، فَاغْفِرْ لِلأَنْصَارِ وَالْمُهَاجِرَهْ ‏"‏‏.‏ تَابَعَهُ سَهْلُ بْنُ سَعْدٍ عَنِ النَّبِيِّ صلى الله عليه وسلم مِثْلَهُ‏.‏

Narrated Sahl bin Sa`d As-Sa`idi:We were in the company of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) in (the battle of) Al-Khandaq, and he was digging the trench while we were carrying the earth away. He looked at us and said, "O Allah! There is no life worth living except the life of the Hereafter, so (please) forgive the Ansar and the Emigrants

ومن آدابه: أن لا يمتلئ من الطعام فى الليل، بل يأكل بمقدار، فانه ما ملأ ابن آدم وعاء شرا من بطن. ومتى شبع أول الليل لم ينتفع بنفسه فى باقيه، وكذلك إذا شبع وقت السحر لم ينتفع بنفسه إلى قريب من الظهر، لأن كثرة الأكل تورث الكسل والفتور، ثم يفوت المقصود من الصيام بكثرة الأكل، لأن المراد منه أن يذوق طعم الجوع، ويكون تاركا للمشتهى.

بين القبض والبسط أي ينقطع إلى صحبة الحال وهو الوارد الذي يرد على القلب من تأثيره بالمعاملة السالب لوصف الكسل والفتور الجالب له إلى مرافقة الرفيق الأعلى الذين أنعم الله عليهم فينتقل من مقام العلم إلى مقام الكشف ومن مقام رسوم الأعمال إلى مقام حقائقها وأذواقها ومواجيدها وأحوالها فيترقى من الإسلام إلى الإيمان ومن الإيمان إلى الإحسان

فحقيقة التعظيم للامر والنهي ان لا يعارضا بترخص جاف ولا يعرضا لتشديد غال فان المقصود هو الصراط المستقيم الموصل إلى الله عز وجل بسالكه وما امر الله عز وجل بأمر الا وللشيطان فيه نزغتان اما تقصير وتفريط واما افراط وغلو فلا يبالي بما ظفر من العبد من الخطيئتين فانه ياتي إلى قلب العبد فيستامه فان وجد فيه فتورا وتوانيا وترخيصا اخذه من هذه الخطة فثبطه واقعده وضربه بالكسل والتواني والفتور وفتح له باب التاويلات والرجاء وغير ذلك حتى ربما ترك العبد المامور جملة

العزيمة فيصدقه في عزمه وفي فعله قال تعالى فإذا عزم الأمر فلو صدقوا الله لكان خيرا لهم فسعادته في صدق العزيمة وصدق الفعل فصدق العزيمة جمعها وجزمها وعدم التردد فيها بل تكون عزيمة لا يشوبها تردد ولا تلوم فإذا صدقت عزيمته بقى عليه صدق الفعل وهو استفراغ الوسع وبذل الجهد فيه وأن لا يتخلف عنه بشيء من ظاهره وباطنه فعزيمة القصد تمنعه من ضعف الإرادة والهمة وصدق الفعل يمنعه من الكسل والفتور ومن صدق الله في جميع أموره صنع الله له فوق ما يصنع لغيره وهذا الصدق معنى يلتئم من صحة الإخلاص وصدق التوكل فأصدق الناس من صح إخلاصه وتوكله

فالإيمان بالصفات ومعرفتها وإثبات حقائقها وتعلق القلب بها وشهوده لها هو مبدأ الطريق ووسطه وغايته وهو روح السالكين وحاديهم إلى الوصول ومحرك عزماتهم إذا فتروا ومثير هممهم إذا قصروا فإن سيرهم إنما هو على الشواهد فمن كان لا شاهد له فلا سير له ولا طلب ولا سلوك له وأعظم الشواهد صفات محبوبهم ونهاية مطلوبهم وذلك هو العلم الذي رفع لهم في السير فشمروا إليه كما قالت عائشة رضي الله عنها من رأى رسول الله فقد رآه غاديا رائحا لم يضع لبنة على لبنة ولكن رفع له علم فشمر إليه ولا يزال العبد في التواني والفتور والكسل حتى يرفع الله عز وجل له بفضله ومنه علما يشاهده بقلبه فيشمر إليه ويعمل عليه

قال الله تعالى : ففروا إلى الله الذاريات : 50 ] وحقيقة الفرار : الهرب من شيء إلى شيء وهو نوعان : فرار السعداء وفرار الأشقياء ففرار السعداء : الفرار إلى الله عز وجل وفرار الأشقياء : الفرار منه لا إليه وأما الفرار منه إليه : ففرار أوليائه قال ابن عباس في قوله تعالى : ففروا إلى الله الذاريات : 50 ] : فروا منه إليه واعملوا بطاعته وقال سهل بن عبدالله : فروا مما سوى الله إلى الله وقال آخرون : اهربوا من عذاب الله إلى ثوابه بالإيمان والطاعة وقال صاحب المنازل : هو الهرب مما لم يكن إلى من لم يزل وهو على ثلاث درجات : فرار العامة من الجهل إلى العلم عقدا وسعيا ومن الكسل إلى التشمير جدا وعزما ومن الضيق إلى السعة ثقة ورجاء يريد بما لم يكن الخلق وبما لم يزل الحق وقوله : فرار العامة : من الجهل إلى العلم عقدا وسعيا الجهل نوعان : عدم العلم بالحق النافع وعدم العمل بموجبه ومقتضاه فكلاهما جهل لغة وعرفا وشرعا وحقيقة قال موسى : أعوذ بالله أن أكون من الجاهلين البقره : 67 ] لما قال له قومه : أتتخذنا هزوا البقره :

Anhedonia as a central factor in depression: Neural mechanisms revealed from preclinical to clinical evidence.: Anhedonia is one of the core symptoms of major depressive disorder (MDD), which is often inadequately treated by traditional antidepressants. The modern framework of anhedonia extends the definition from impaired consummatory pleasure or interest in rewards to a broad spectrum of deficits that impact functions such as reward anticipation, approach motivation, effort expenditure, reward valuation, expectation, and reward-cue association learning. Substantial preclinical and clinical research has

How to improve reward sensitivity - Predictors of long-term effects of a randomized controlled online intervention trial.: Background: Reward sensitivity is a central maintaining factor of depression. Current treatments fail at sufficiently and reliably modifying reward processing. Therefore, we employed interventions targeting reward sensitivity and evaluated the long-term efficacy of different online interventions, additionally exploring predictors of changes in reward sensitivity. Methods: This four-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) tested the long-term stability of treatment effects during a four-month follo

Effectiveness of behavioral activation and mindfulness in increasing reward sensitivity and reducing depressive symptoms - A randomized controlled trial.: Reward insensitivity is a potential key mechanism regarding the maintenance of depression. However, there is a lack of research examining and comparing the effectiveness of different psychological interventions in modifying reward insensitivity. This four-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) investigated a two-week online intervention. After screening for eligibility, a total of 336 participants were randomized, and 224 participated per-protocol. Participants were assigned to either a) behavior

'We pledge to improve the health of our entire community': Improving health worker motivation and performance in Bihar, India through teamwork, recognition, and non-financial incentives.: Background: Motivation is critical to health worker performance and work quality. In Bihar, India, frontline health workers provide essential health services for the state's poorest citizens. Yet, there is a shortfall of motivated and skilled providers and a lack of coordination between two cadres of frontline health workers and their supervisors. CARE India developed an approach aimed at improving health workers' performance by shifting work culture and strengthening teamwork and motivation. Th

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effort-reward imbalance model of workplace stress with indicators of immune function.: Objective: Despite considerable research into associations between the effort reward imbalance (ERI) model and various health outcomes over the past 20years, the underlying mechanisms responsible for the association remain unclear. Recently, ERI investigations have examined associations with immune sub-systems (e.g., leukocytes, cytokines and immunoglobulins). Synthesis of the amalgamated research evidence will aid clarity to this field of enquiry. We conducted a meta-analysis and reviewed the a

The utility of monetary contingency contracts for weight loss: a systematic review and meta-analysis.: Financial incentives to improve health have received increasing attention, but are subject to ethical concerns. Monetary Contingency Contracts (MCCs), which require individuals to deposit money that is refunded contingent on reaching a goal, are a potential alternative strategy. This review evaluates systematically the evidence for weight loss-related MCCs. Randomised controlled trials testing the effect of weight loss-related MCCs were identified in online databases. Random-effects meta-analyse

Explicit memory creation during sleep demonstrates a causal role of place cells in navigation.

Hippocampal place cells assemblies are believed to support the cognitive map, and their reactivations during sleep are thought to be involved in spatial memory consolidation. By triggering intracranial rewarding stimulations by place cell spikes during sleep, we induced an explicit memory trace, leading to a goal-directed behavior toward the place field. This demonstrates that place cells' activity during sleep still conveys relevant spatial information and that this activity is functionally significant for navigation.

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Delayed gratification: A grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) will wait for a better reward.

Delay of gratification, the ability to forgo an immediate reward to gain either better quality or quantity, has been used as a metric for temporal discounting, self-control, and the ability to plan for the future in both humans (particularly children) and nonhumans. The task involved can be parsed in several ways, such that the subjects can be required to wait, not only for a better or a larger reward, but also such that the rewards can either be in view or hidden during the delay interval. We have demonstrated that a Grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) trained in the use of English speech could respond to the label "wait" for up to 15 min, in a task that has many similarities to those used with young children, to receive a better quality reward, whether or not the better quality reward or the experimenter was in view.

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Exercise habit formation in new gym members: a longitudinal study.

Reasoned action approaches have primarily been applied to understand exercise behaviour for the past three decades, yet emerging findings in unconscious and Dual Process research show that behavior may also be predicted by automatic processes such as habit. The purpose of this study was to: (1) investigate the behavioral requirements for exercise habit formation, (2) how Dual Process approach predicts behaviour, and (3) what predicts habit by testing a model (Lally and Gardner in Health Psychol Rev 7:S137-S158, 2013). Participants (n = 111) were new gym members who completed surveys across 12 weeks. It was found that exercising for at least four bouts per week for 6 weeks was the minimum requirement to establish an exercise habit. Dual Process analysis using Linear Mixed Models (LMM) revealed habit and intention to be parallel predictors of exercise behavior in the trajectory analysis. F…

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Amygdala Signaling during Foraging in a Hazardous Environment.

We recorded basolateral amygdala (BL) neurons in a seminaturalistic foraging task. Rats had to leave their nest to retrieve food in an elongated arena inhabited by a mechanical predator. There were marked trial-to-trial variations in behavior. After poking their head into the foraging arena and waiting there for a while, rats either retreated to their nest or initiated foraging. Before initiating foraging, rats waited longer on trials that followed failed than successful trials indicating that prior experience influenced behavior. Upon foraging initiation, most principal cells (Type-1) reduced their firing rate, while in a minority (Type-2) it increased. When rats aborted foraging, Type-1 cells increased their firing rates, whereas in Type-2 cells it did not change. Surprisingly, the opposite activity profiles of Type-1 and Type-2 units were also seen in control tasks devoid of explicit …

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Neural substrates of approach-avoidance conflict decision-making.

Animal approach-avoidance conflict paradigms have been used extensively to operationalize anxiety, quantify the effects of anxiolytic agents, and probe the neural basis of fear and anxiety. Results from human neuroimaging studies support that a frontal-striatal-amygdala neural circuitry is important for approach-avoidance learning. However, the neural basis of decision-making is much less clear in this context. Thus, we combined a recently developed human approach-avoidance paradigm with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to identify neural substrates underlying approach-avoidance conflict decision-making. Fifteen healthy adults completed the approach-avoidance conflict (AAC) paradigm during fMRI. Analyses of variance were used to compare conflict to nonconflict (avoid-threat and approach-reward) conditions and to compare level of reward points offered during the decision phase…

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Orbitofrontal cortex volume and brain reward response in obesity.

Background/objectives: What drives overconsumption of food is poorly understood. Alterations in brain structure and function could contribute to increased food seeking. Recently, brain orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) volume has been implicated in dysregulated eating but little is known how brain structure relates to function. Subjects/methods: We examined obese (n=18, age=28.7±8.3 years) and healthy control women (n=24, age=27.4±6.3 years) using a multimodal brain imaging approach. We applied magnetic resonance and diffusion tensor imaging to study brain gray and white matter volume as well as white matter (WM) integrity, and tested whether orbitofrontal cortex volume predicts brain reward circuitry activation in a taste reinforcement-learning paradigm that has been associated with dopamine function. Results: Obese individuals displayed lower gray and associated white matter volumes (P<0.05 f…

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Optogenetic activation of dorsal raphe serotonin neurons enhances patience for future rewards.

Serotonin is a neuromodulator that is involved extensively in behavioral, affective, and cognitive functions in the brain. Previous recording studies of the midbrain dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) revealed that the activation of putative serotonin neurons correlates with the levels of behavioral arousal [1], rhythmic motor outputs [2], salient sensory stimuli [3-6], reward, and conditioned cues [5-8]. The classic theory on serotonin states that it opposes dopamine and inhibits behaviors when aversive events are predicted [9-14]. However, the therapeutic effects of serotonin signal-enhancing medications have been difficult to reconcile with this theory [15, 16]. In contrast, a more recent theory states that serotonin facilitates long-term optimal behaviors and suppresses impulsive behaviors [17-21]. To test these theories, we developed optogenetic mice that selectively express channelrhodopsi…

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Intrinsic rewards, fruit and vegetable consumption, and habit strength: a three-wave study testing the associative-cybernetic model.

Background: Habit formation is thought to lead to long-term maintenance of fruit and vegetable consumption. Habits develop through context-dependent repetition, but additional variables such as intrinsic reward of behaviour may influence habit strength. Drawing upon the Associative-Cybernetic Model, this exploratory study tested different pathways by which intrinsic reward may influence fruit and vegetable consumption habit strength. Methods: In a three-wave study of fruit and vegetable intake in adults (N = 127) from the general population, intrinsic reward, intention, and self-efficacy were assessed at baseline, fruit and vegetable consumption and intrinsic reward two weeks later, and habit strength another two weeks later. Direct, indirect, and moderation effects of intrinsic reward on habit strength were tested simultaneously in a moderated mediation model. Results: Intrinsic reward …

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Phasic dopamine release in the rat nucleus accumbens symmetrically encodes a reward prediction error term.

Making predictions about the rewards associated with environmental stimuli and updating those predictions through feedback is an essential aspect of adaptive behavior. Theorists have argued that dopamine encodes a reward prediction error (RPE) signal that is used in such a reinforcement learning process. Recent work with fMRI has demonstrated that the BOLD signal in dopaminergic target areas meets both necessary and sufficient conditions of an axiomatic model of the RPE hypothesis. However, there has been no direct evidence that dopamine release itself also meets necessary and sufficient criteria for encoding an RPE signal. Further, the fact that dopamine neurons have low tonic firing rates that yield a limited dynamic range for encoding negative RPEs has led to significant debate about whether positive and negative prediction errors are encoded on a similar scale. To address both of the…

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Neural correlates of substance abuse: reduced functional connectivity between areas underlying reward and cognitive control.

Substance use disorders (SUD) have been associated with dysfunction in reward processing, habit formation, and cognitive-behavioral control. Accordingly, neurocircuitry models of addiction highlight roles for nucleus accumbens, dorsal striatum, and prefrontal/anterior cingulate cortex. However, the precise nature of the disrupted interactions between these brain regions in SUD, and the psychological correlates thereof, remain unclear. Here we used magnetic resonance imaging to measure rest-state functional connectivity of three key striatal nuclei (nucleus accumbens, dorsal caudate, and dorsal putamen) in a sample of 40 adult male prison inmates (n = 22 diagnosed with SUD; n = 18 without SUD). Relative to the non-SUD group, the SUD group exhibited significantly lower functional connectivity between the nucleus accumbens and a network of frontal cortical regions involved in cognitive cont…

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Exciting fear in adolescence: does pubertal development alter threat processing?

Adolescent development encompasses an ostensible paradox in threat processing. Risk taking increases dramatically after the onset of puberty, contributing to a 200% increase in mortality. Yet, pubertal maturation is associated with increased reactivity in threat-avoidance systems. In the first part of this paper we propose a heuristic model of adolescent affective development that may help to reconcile aspects of this paradox, which focuses on hypothesized pubertal increases in the capacity to experience (some) fear-evoking experiences as an exciting thrill. In the second part of this paper, we test key features of this model by examining brain activation to threat cues in a longitudinal study that disentangled pubertal and age effects. Pubertal increases in testosterone predicted increased activation to threat cues, not only in regions associated with threat avoidance (i.e., amygdala), …

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Ventral medial prefrontal cortex inactivation impairs impulse control but does not affect delay-discounting in rats.

Maladaptive levels of impulsivity are found in several neuropsychiatric disorders, such as ADHD, addiction, aggression and schizophrenia. Intolerance to delay-of-gratification, or delay-discounting, and deficits in impulse control are dissociable forms of impulsivity top-down controlled by the prefrontal cortex, with the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) suggested to be critically involved. The present study used transient inactivation of the rats' vmPFC via bilateral microinfusion of the GABAA receptor agonist muscimol (0.05, 0.5 μg/0.3 μl) to analyse its relevance for impulse control in a 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT) and delay-discounting in a Skinner box. Intra-vmPFC injection of low-dose muscimol impaired impulse control indicated by enhanced premature responding in the 5-CSRTT, while flattening the delay-dependent shift in the preference of the large reward in…

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Representation of outcome risk and action in the anterior caudate nucleus.

The anterior caudate nucleus is essential for goal-directed behavior because it links outcome information to actions. It is well known that caudate neurons provide a variety of reward-related and action signals. However, it is still unclear how the two signals are integrated. We investigated whether and how outcome risk modulates spatial representation. We recorded neural activity in the anterior caudate nucleus while monkeys made saccades to multiple spatial targets, each associated with either fixed (safe) or variable (risky) amount of reward. We report that individual neurons combined the outcome reward signal with spatial information about the direction of saccades. These signals could be reliably read out from the populations of neurons. Moreover, the prospect of a risky outcome improved the quality of spatial information. These results provide direct evidence that global spatial re…

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Behavioral and neural substrates of habit formation in rats intravenously self-administering nicotine.

Tobacco addiction involves a transition from occasional, voluntary smoking towards habitual behavior that becomes increasingly resistant to quitting. The development of smoking habits may reflect a loss of behavioral control that can be modeled in rats. This study investigated the behavioral and neural substrates of habit formation in rats exposed to either brief (10 days) or extended (47 days) intravenous (IV) nicotine self-administration training. Following training, the first cohort of rats were exposed to a nicotine devaluation treatment, which involved repeated pairings of IV nicotine with lithium injection. They were then tested for sensitivity of responding to nicotine devaluation under extinction and reinstatement conditions. The second cohort of rats received equivalent self-administration training followed by processing of brain tissue for c-Fos immunohistochemistry. After brie…

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Binge-like consumption of a palatable food accelerates habitual control of behavior and is dependent on activation of the dorsolateral striatum.

Access to highly palatable and calorically dense foods contributes to increasing rates of obesity worldwide. Some have made the controversial argument that consumption of such foods can lead to "food addiction," yet little is known about how long-term access to highly palatable foods might alter goal-directed learning and decision making. In the following experiments, rats were given 5 weeks of continuous or restricted daily access to sweetened condensed milk (SCM) before instrumental training for food reward. Subsequently we examined whether goal-directed performance was impaired in these groups using the outcome-devaluation task. Control rats reduced responding following devaluation of the earned outcome as did those with previous continuous access to SCM. Of interest, rats with previous restricted access to SCM responded similarly under the devalued and nondevalued conditions, indicat…

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Dopamine reward prediction error responses reflect marginal utility.

Background: Optimal choices require an accurate neuronal representation of economic value. In economics, utility functions are mathematical representations of subjective value that can be constructed from choices under risk. Utility usually exhibits a nonlinear relationship to physical reward value that corresponds to risk attitudes and reflects the increasing or decreasing marginal utility obtained with each additional unit of reward. Accordingly, neuronal reward responses coding utility should robustly reflect this nonlinearity. Results: In two monkeys, we measured utility as a function of physical reward value from meaningful choices under risk (that adhered to first- and second-order stochastic dominance). The resulting nonlinear utility functions predicted the certainty equivalents for new gambles, indicating that the functions' shapes were meaningful. The monkeys were risk seeking …

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Overriding phasic dopamine signals redirects action selection during risk/reward decision making.

Phasic increases and decreases in dopamine (DA) transmission encode reward prediction errors thought to facilitate reward-related learning, yet how these signals guide action selection in more complex situations requiring evaluation of different reward remains unclear. We manipulated phasic DA signals while rats performed a risk/reward decision-making task, using temporally discrete stimulation of either the lateral habenula (LHb) or rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg) to suppress DA bursts (confirmed with neurophysiological studies) or the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to override phasic dips. When rats chose between small/certain and larger/risky rewards, LHb or RMTg stimulation, time-locked to delivery of one of these rewards, redirected bias toward the alternative option, whereas VTA stimulation after non rewarded choices increased risky choice. LHb stimulation prior to choices shif…

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Capacity to delay reward differentiates obsessive-compulsive disorder and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

Background: Although the relationship between obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) has long been debated, clinical samples of OCD (without OCPD) and OCPD (without OCD) have never been systematically compared. We studied whether individuals with OCD, OCPD, or both conditions differ on symptomatology, functioning, and a measure of self-control: the capacity to delay reward. Methods: Twenty-five OCD, 25 OCPD, 25 comorbid OCD + OCPD, and 25 healthy control subjects completed clinical assessments and a validated intertemporal choice task that measures capacity to forego small immediate rewards for larger delayed rewards. Results: OCD and OCPD subjects both showed impairment in psychosocial functioning and quality of life, as well as compulsive behavior, but only subjects with OCD reported obsessions. Individuals with OCPD, with or without co…

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Dissociable brain signatures of choice conflict and immediate reward preferences in alcohol use disorders.

Impulsive delayed reward discounting (DRD) is an important behavioral process in alcohol use disorders (AUDs), reflecting incapacity to delay gratification. Recent work in neuroeconomics has begun to unravel the neural mechanisms supporting DRD, but applications of neuroeconomics in relation to AUDs have been limited. This study examined the neural mechanisms of DRD preferences in AUDs, with emphasis on dissociating activation patterns based on DRD choice type and level of cognitive conflict. Heavy drinking adult men with (n = 13) and without (n = 12) a diagnosis of an AUD completed a monetary DRD task during a functional magnetic resonance imaging scan. Participant responses were coded based on choice type (impulsive versus restrained) and level of cognitive conflict (easy versus hard). AUD+ participants exhibited significantly more impulsive DRD decision-making. Significant activation …

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Shared mushroom body circuits underlie visual and olfactory memories in Drosophila.

In nature, animals form memories associating reward or punishment with stimuli from different sensory modalities, such as smells and colors. It is unclear, however, how distinct sensory memories are processed in the brain. We established appetitive and aversive visual learning assays for Drosophila that are comparable to the widely used olfactory learning assays. These assays share critical features, such as reinforcing stimuli (sugar reward and electric shock punishment), and allow direct comparison of the cellular requirements for visual and olfactory memories. We found that the same subsets of dopamine neurons drive formation of both sensory memories. Furthermore, distinct yet partially overlapping subsets of mushroom body intrinsic neurons are required for visual and olfactory memories. Thus, our results suggest that distinct sensory memories are processed in a common brain center. S…

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I want it all and I want it now: Delay of gratification in preschool children.

On the delay-of-gratification choice paradigm, 4-year-olds typically choose the larger, delayed reward, exhibiting delay of gratification, whereas 3-year-olds typically choose the small, immediate reward. Despite this highly replicated finding, the cognitive mechanism(s) underlying 3-year-olds' failure on the choice paradigm remain unclear. Recently, several researchers have proposed the involvement of the "hot" affective system and the "cool" cognitive system in pre-schoolers' performance on the choice paradigm. Using this "hot" and "cool" systems framework, we tested 112 3- and 4-year-olds on a modified choice paradigm that was designed to help young children better utilize their "cool" system, allowing them to make more mindful and future-oriented decisions. In the modified paradigm, 3-year-olds made choices consistent with those of 4-year-olds, exhibiting delay of gratification. Thes…

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Counterfactual processing of economic action-outcome alternatives in obsessive-compulsive disorder: further evidence of impaired goal-directed behavior.

Background: Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a disorder of automatic, uncontrollable behaviors and obsessive rumination. There is evidence that OCD patients have difficulties performing goal-directed actions, instead exhibiting repetitive stimulus-response habit behaviors. This might result from the excessive formation of stimulus-response habit associations or from an impairment in the ability to use outcome value to guide behavior. We investigated the latter by examining counterfactual decision making, which is the ability to use comparisons of prospective action-outcome scenarios to guide economic choice. Methods: We tested decision making (forward counterfactual) and affective responses (backward counterfactual) in 20 OCD patients and 20 matched healthy control subjects using an economic choice paradigm that previously revealed attenuation of both the experience and avoidance o…

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Connectivity strength of dissociable striatal tracts predict individual differences in temporal discounting.

Large individual differences exist in the ability to delay gratification for the sake of satisfying longer-term goals. These individual differences are commonly assayed by studying intertemporal preferences, as revealed by choices between immediate and delayed rewards. In the brain, reward-based and goal-oriented decisions are believed to rely on the striatum and its interactions with other cortical and subcortical networks. However, it remains unknown which specific cortical-striatal tracts are involved in intertemporal decision making. We use connectivity analyses in both structural and functional MRI to further our understanding of the relationship between distinct corticostriatal networks and intertemporal preferences in humans. Our results revealed distinct striatal pathways that are differentially related to delay discounting. Structural and functional connectivity between striatum…

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You are the danger: attenuated insula response in methamphetamine users during aversive interoceptive decision-making.

Background: Drug dependent individuals often make drug-taking decisions when they do not feel well. Yet, few studies have examined the influence of an aversive state on decision-making related neural processing. Methods: We investigate brain activation to decision-making during an aversive interoceptive challenge in methamphetamine users using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Recently abstinent inpatients with methamphetamine use disorder (METH; n=20) and healthy comparison subjects (CTL; n=22) performed a two-choice prediction task at three fixed error rates (ER; 20%=reward, 50%=uncertainty, 80%=punishment) while anticipating and experiencing episodes of inspiratory breathing load during fMRI. Results: METH exhibited higher trait anxiety in conjunction with lower anterior insula (AI) and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) activation than CTL across trials. METH also showed lower …

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Greater striatopallidal adaptive coding during cue-reward learning and food reward habituation predict future weight gain.

Animal experiments indicate that after repeated pairings of palatable food receipt and cues that predict palatable food receipt, dopamine signaling increases in response to predictive cues, but decreases in response to food receipt. Using functional MRI and mixed effects growth curve models with 35 females (M age=15.5±0.9; M BMI=24.5±5.4) we documented an increase in BOLD response in the caudate (r=.42) during exposure to cues predicting impending milkshake receipt over repeated exposures, demonstrating a direct measure of in vivo cue-reward learning in humans. Further, we observed a simultaneous decrease in putamen (r=-.33) and ventral pallidum (r=-.45) response during milkshake receipt that occurred over repeated exposures, putatively reflecting food reward habitation. We then tested whether cue-reward learning and habituation slopes predicted future weight over 2-year follow-up. Those…

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