The hormonal stress response and its measurement.
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351 to 375 of 897Resilience to chronic stress is mediated by hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor.
Chronic stress is a trigger for several psychiatric disorders, including depression; however, critical individual differences in resilience to both the behavioral and the neurochemical effects of stress have been reported. A prominent mechanism by which the brain reacts to acute and chronic stress is activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is inhibited by the hippocampus via a polysynaptic circuit. Alterations in secretion of stress hormones and levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus were implicated in depression and the effects of antidepressant medications. However, the potential role of hippocampal BDNF in behavioral resilience to chronic stress and in the regulation of the HPA axis has not been evaluated. In the present study, Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to 4 weeks of chronic mild stress (CMS) to induce depressive-like …
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Understanding the Connection between Gut Homeostasis and Psychological Stress.
Long-term exposure to adverse life events that provoke acute or chronic psychological stress (hereinafter "stress") can negatively affect physical health and even increase susceptibility to psychological illnesses, such as anxiety and depression. As a part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) released from the hypothalamus is primarily responsible for the stress response. Typically, CRF disrupts the gastrointestinal system and leads to gut microbiota dysbiosis, thereby increasing risk of functional gastrointestinal diseases, such as irritable bowel syndrome. Furthermore, CRF increases oxidative damage to the colon and triggers immune responses involving mast cells, neutrophils, and monocytes. CRF even affects the differentiation of intestinal stem cells (ISCs), causing enterochromaffin cells to secrete excessive amounts of 5-hydroxytryptamine (…
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Food Addiction and Psychosocial Adversity: Biological Embedding, Contextual Factors, and Public Health Implications.
The role of stress, trauma, and adversity particularly early in life has been identified as a contributing factor in both drug and food addictions. While links between traumatic stress and substance use disorders are well documented, the pathways to food addiction and obesity are less established. This review focuses on psychosocial and neurobiological factors that may increase risk for addiction-like behaviors and ultimately increase BMI over the lifespan. Early childhood and adolescent adversity can induce long-lasting alterations in the glucocorticoid and dopamine systems that lead to increased addiction vulnerability later in life. Allostatic load, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and emerging data on epigenetics in the context of biological embedding are highlighted. A conceptual model for food addiction is proposed, which integrates data on the biological embedding of adver…
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McEwen BS, Akil H (2020)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usThe Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience414 citations Revisiting the Stress Concept: Implications for Affective Disorders.
Over the last 50 years, the concept of stress has evolved significantly, and our understanding of the underlying neurobiology has expanded dramatically. Rather than consider stress biology to be relevant only under unusual and threatening conditions, we conceive of it as an ongoing, adaptive process of assessing the environment, coping with it, and enabling the individual to anticipate and deal with future challenges. Though much remains to be discovered, the fundamental neurocircuitry that underlies these processes has been broadly delineated, key molecular players have been identified, and the impact of this system on neuroplasticity has been well established. More recently, we have come to appreciate the critical interaction between the brain and the rest of the body as it pertains to stress responsiveness. Importantly, this system can become overloaded due to ongoing environmental de…
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Matthews GA, Tye KM (2019)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences168 citations Neural mechanisms of social homeostasis.
Social connections are vital to survival throughout the animal kingdom and are dynamic across the life span. There are debilitating consequences of social isolation and loneliness, and social support is increasingly a primary consideration in health care, disease prevention, and recovery. Considering social connection as an "innate need," it is hypothesized that evolutionarily conserved neural systems underlie the maintenance of social connections: alerting the individual to their absence and coordinating effector mechanisms to restore social contact. This is reminiscent of a homeostatic system designed to maintain social connection. Here, we explore the identity of neural systems regulating "social homeostasis." We review findings from rodent studies evaluating the rapid response to social deficit (in the form of acute social isolation) and propose that parallel, overlapping circuits ar…
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Neural basis of major depressive disorder: Beyond monoamine hypothesis.
The monoamine hypothesis has been accepted as the most common hypothesis of major depressive disorder (MDD) for a long period because of its simplicity and understandability. Actually, most currently used antidepressants have been considered to act based on the monoamine hypothesis. However, an important problem of the monoamine hypothesis has been pointed out as follows: it fails to explain the latency of response to antidepressants. In addition, many patients with MDD have remained refractory to currently used antidepressants. Therefore, monoamine-alternate hypotheses are required to explain the latency of response to antidepressants. Such hypotheses have been expected to contribute to identifying hopeful new therapeutic targets for MDD. Past studies have revealed that the volume of the hippocampus is decreased in patients with MDD, which is likely caused by the failure of the hypothal…
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Neuroendocrine Regulation of Air Pollution Health Effects: Emerging Insights.
Air pollutant exposures are linked to cardiopulmonary diseases, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, neurobehavioral conditions, and reproductive abnormalities. Significant effort is invested in understanding how pollutants encountered by the lung might induce effects in distant organs. The role of circulating mediators has been predicted; however, their origin and identity have not been confirmed. New evidence has emerged which implicates the role of neuroendocrine sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) stress axes in mediating a wide array of systemic and pulmonary effects. Our recent studies using ozone exposure as a prototypical air pollutant demonstrate that increases in circulating adrenal-derived stress hormones (epinephrine and cortisol/corticosterone) contribute to lung injury/inflammation and metabolic effects in the liver, pancreas, adipose, and …
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Gold PW (2015)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usMolecular psychiatry438 citations The organization of the stress system and its dysregulation in depressive illness.
Stressors are imminent or perceived challenges to homeostasis. The stress response is an innate, stereotypic, adaptive response to stressors that has evolved in the service of restoring the nonstressed homeostatic set point. It is encoded in specific neuroanatomical sites that activate a specific repertoire of cognitive, behavioral and physiologic phenomena. Adaptive responses, though essential for survival, can become dysregulated and result in disease. A clear example is autoimmune disease. I postulate that depression, like autoimmunity, represents a dysregulated adaptive response: a stress response that has gone awry. The cardinal manifestation of the normal stress response is anxiety. Cognitive programs shift from complex associative operations to rapid retrieval of unconscious emotional memories acquired during prior threatening situations. These emerge automatically to promote surv…
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A consensus endocrine profile for chronically stressed wild animals does not exist.
Given the connection between chronic stress and health, there has been a growing emphasis on identifying chronically stressed wild animals, especially in relation to anthropogenic disturbances. There is considerable confusion, however, in how to identify chronically stressed wild animals, but the most common assumption is that measures of glucocorticoid (GC) function will increase. In an attempt to determine an "endocrine profile" of a chronically stressed wild animal, this review collected papers from the literature that measured baseline GC, stress-induced GC, measures of integrated GC, negative feedback, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis sensitivity, and/or body weight in chronically stressed animals. The collected studies encompassed laboratory and field studies, numerous diverse species, and multiple techniques for inducing chronic stress. Each paper was ranked according to its re…
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Functional interactions between stress and the endocannabinoid system: from synaptic signaling to behavioral output.
Endocannabinoid signaling is distributed throughout the brain, regulating synaptic release of both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. The presence of endocannabinoid signaling within stress-sensitive nuclei of the hypothalamus, as well as upstream limbic structures such as the amygdala, suggests it may play an important role in regulating the neuroendocrine and behavioral effects of stress. The evidence reviewed here demonstrates that endocannabinoid signaling is involved in both activating and terminating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to both acute and repeated stress. In addition to neuroendocrine function, however, endocannabinoid signaling is also recruited by stress and glucocorticoid hormones to modulate cognitive and emotional processes such as memory consolidation and extinction. Collectively, these data demonstrate the importance of endocannabinoid s…
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The role of corticosteroids and stress in chronic pain conditions.
The relationship between corticosteroids (endogenous and exogenous) and stress is well known, as is the use of steroids as concomitant treatment in pain management during acute inflammation. In the past, steroids have not been considered the first line of treatment in pain management. In this review, we examine new scientific and clinical evidence that demonstrates the direct role that steroids play in the generation and clinical management of chronic pain. We will discuss the new findings demonstrating the fact that steroids and related mediators produce paradoxical effects on pain such as analgesia, hyperalgesia, and even placebo analgesia. In addition, we will examine the physiologic effect of stress, high allostatic load, and idiopathic disease states such as chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, and burnout. The recently observed positive relationship bet…
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The influence of stress hormones on fear circuitry.
Fear arousal, initiated by an environmental threat, leads to activation of the stress response, a state of alarm that promotes an array of autonomic and endocrine changes designed to aid self-preservation. The stress response includes the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex and catecholamines from the adrenal medulla and sympathetic nerves. These stress hormones, in turn, provide feedback to the brain and influence neural structures that control emotion and cognition. To illustrate this influence, we focus on how it impacts fear conditioning, a behavioral paradigm widely used to study the neural mechanisms underlying the acquisition, expression, consolidation, reconsolidation, and extinction of emotional memories. We also discuss how stress and the endocrine mediators of the stress response influence the morphological and electrophysiological properties of neurons in brain…
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Yehuda R (2009)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences263 citations Status of glucocorticoid alterations in post-traumatic stress disorder.
The current status of glucocorticoid alterations in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) will be described in this chapter. Emphasis will be placed on data that suggest that at least some glucocorticoid-related observations in PTSD reflect pretraumatic glucocorticoid status. Recent observations have provided some evidence that pretraumatic glucocorticoid alterations may arise from genetic, epigenetic, and possibly other environmental influences that serve to increase the likelihood of developing PTSD following trauma exposure, as well as modulate attendant biological alterations associated with its pathophysiology. Current studies in the field of PTSD employ glucocorticoid challenge strategies to delineate effects of exogenously administered glucocorticoids on neuroendocrine, cognitive, and brain function. Results of these studies have provided an important rationale for using glucocort…
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Conrad CD (2008)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usReviews in the neurosciences311 citations Chronic stress-induced hippocampal vulnerability: the glucocorticoid vulnerability hypothesis.
The hippocampus, a limbic structure important in learning and memory, is particularly sensitive to chronic stress and to glucocorticoids. While glucocorticoids are essential for an effective stress response, their oversecretion was originally hypothesized to contribute to age-related hippocampal degeneration. However, conflicting findings were reported on whether prolonged exposure to elevated glucocorticoids endangered the hippocampus and whether the primate hippocampus even responded to glucocorticoids as the rodent hippocampus did. This review discusses the seemingly inconsistent findings about the effects of elevated and prolonged glucocorticoids on hippocampal health and proposes that a chronic stress history, which includes repeated elevation of glucocorticoids, may make the hippocampus vulnerable to potential injury. Studies are described to show that chronic stress or prolonged e…
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Sinha R (2008)reviewMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences1,186 citations Chronic stress, drug use, and vulnerability to addiction.
Stress is a well-known risk factor in the development of addiction and in addiction relapse vulnerability. A series of population-based and epidemiological studies have identified specific stressors and individual-level variables that are predictive of substance use and abuse. Preclinical research also shows that stress exposure enhances drug self-administration and reinstates drug seeking in drug-experienced animals. The deleterious effects of early life stress, child maltreatment, and accumulated adversity on alterations in the corticotropin releasing factor and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (CRF/HPA), the extrahypothalamic CRF, the autonomic arousal, and the central noradrenergic systems are also presented. The effects of these alterations on the corticostriatal-limbic motivational, learning, and adaptation systems that include mesolimbic dopamine, glutamate, and gamma-amino-but…
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Early pharmacological interventions for universal prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Background: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe and debilitating condition. Several pharmacological interventions have been proposed with the aim to prevent or mitigate it. These interventions should balance efficacy and tolerability, given that not all individuals exposed to a traumatic event will develop PTSD. There are different possible approaches to preventing PTSD; universal prevention is aimed at individuals at risk of developing PTSD on the basis of having been exposed to a traumatic event, irrespective of whether they are showing signs of psychological difficulties.
Objectives: To assess the efficacy and acceptability of pharmacological interventions for universal prevention of PTSD in adults exposed to a traumatic event.
Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Common Mental Disorders Controlled Trial Register (CCMDCTR), CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, two other databas…
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A systematic review of parent-child synchrony: It is more than skin deep.
This manuscript provides a critical review of the literature on parent-child physiological synchrony-the matching of biological states between parents and children. All eligible studies found some evidence of physiological synchrony, though the magnitude and direction of synchrony varied according to methodological factors, including the physiological system examined (i.e., parasympathetic or sympathetic nervous system activity, adrenocortical functioning) and the statistical approach used (e.g., multilevel modeling, correlation). The review underscores the need to consider the context in which physiological synchrony occurs (e.g., family risk) to best understand its significance. Furthermore, the review delineates vital avenues for future research, including the need to assess synchrony across multiple physiological systems and the importance of documenting continuity/change in physiolo…
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Hair cortisol concentration in preschoolers with attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptoms-Roles of gender and family adversity.
Objective: Previous studies on the association between hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA) activity and ADHD yielded inconsistent findings, particularly in younger children. This might be due to the heterogeneity of the disorder, making moderator effects of variables probable, which circumscribe more homogenous subgroups. There have been indications of moderator effects on this association by gender of child and exposure to family adversity. Moreover, difficulties in capturing long-term basal HPAA activity in younger children might have contributed to the inconsistencies. We therefore analyzed moderator effects of gender and family adversity while using the hair cortisol concentration (HCC) to assess integrated long-term HPAA.
Methods: The community-based sample consisted of 122 4-5-year-old preschoolers (71 screened positive for elevated ADHD symptoms). ADHD symptoms were measure…
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Child mortality, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and cellular aging in mothers.
Psychological challenges, including traumatic events, have been hypothesized to increase the age-related pace of biological aging. Here we test the hypothesis that psychological challenges can affect the pace of telomere attrition, a marker of cellular aging, using data from an ongoing longitudinal-cohort study of Kaqchikel Mayan women living in a population with a high frequency of child mortality, a traumatic life event. Specifically, we evaluate the associations between child mortality, maternal telomere length and the mothers' hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA), or stress axis, activity. Child mortality data were collected in 2000 and 2013. HPAA activity was assessed by quantifying cortisol levels in first morning urinary specimens collected every other day for seven weeks in 2013. Telomere length (TL) was quantified using qPCR in 55 women from buccal specimens collected in 2…
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Chronic stress, cortisol dysfunction, and pain: a psychoneuroendocrine rationale for stress management in pain rehabilitation.
Pain is a primary symptom driving patients to seek physical therapy, and its attenuation commonly defines a successful outcome. A large body of evidence is dedicated to elucidating the relationship between chronic stress and pain; however, stress is rarely addressed in pain rehabilitation. A physiologic stress response may be evoked by fear or perceived threat to safety, status, or well-being and elicits the secretion of sympathetic catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinepherine) and neuroendocrine hormones (cortisol) to promote survival and motivate success. Cortisol is a potent anti-inflammatory that functions to mobilize glucose reserves for energy and modulate inflammation. Cortisol also may facilitate the consolidation of fear-based memories for future survival and avoidance of danger. Although short-term stress may be adaptive, maladaptive responses (eg, magnification, rumination,…
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Good stress, bad stress and oxidative stress: insights from anticipatory cortisol reactivity.
Chronic psychological stress appears to accelerate biological aging, and oxidative damage is an important potential mediator of this process. However, the mechanisms by which psychological stress promotes oxidative damage are poorly understood. This study investigates the theory that cortisol increases in response to an acutely stressful event have the potential to either enhance or undermine psychobiological resilience to oxidative damage, depending on the body's prior exposure to chronic psychological stress. In order to achieve a range of chronic stress exposure, forty-eight post-menopausal women were recruited in a case-control design that matched women caring for spouses with dementia (a chronic stress model) with similarly aged control women whose spouses were healthy. Participants completed a questionnaire assessing perceived stress over the previous month and provided fasting blo…
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Luo H, Hu X, Liu X, Ma X, Guo W, Qiu C, Wang Y, Wang Q, Zhang X, Zhang W, Hannum G, Zhang K, Liu X, Li T (2012)MEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usBiological psychiatry116 citations Hair cortisol level as a biomarker for altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity in female adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake.
Background: The present study evaluated the accumulated changes in hair cortisol levels of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) attributed to the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China.
Methods: Sixty-four female adolescents from two townships who experienced the earthquake were recruited 7 months after the disaster, including 32 subjects with PTSD (PTSD group) and 32 subjects without PTSD (non-PTSD group). Twenty matched adolescents were recruited from an area that was not affected significantly by the earthquake as the control group. Hair cortisol concentrations were measured by the electrochemiluminescence immunoassay in each 3-cm segment of hair sample from the scalp.
Results: There was no significant difference at the baseline hair cortisol level in the three groups before the traumatic event (p > .6). Hair cortisol levels changed over time and differed among groups (p = .0…
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Effect of forest bathing on physiological and psychological responses in young Japanese male subjects.
Objective: To provide scientific evidence supporting the efficacy of forest bathing as a natural therapy by investigating its physiological benefits using biological indicators in outdoor settings.
Study design: Within-group comparisons were used to examine psychological and physiological responses to exposure to real forest and urban environments.
Methods: Young Japanese male adults participated in a 3-day, 2-night field experiment. Physiological responses as well as self-reported psychological responses to forest and urban environmental stimuli were measured in real settings. The results of each indicator were compared against each environmental stimulus.
Results: Heart rate variability analysis indicated that the forest environment significantly increased parasympathetic nervous activity and significantly suppressed sympathetic activity of participants compared with the urban environm…
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Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in dysphoric children and adolescents: cortisol reactivity to psychosocial stress from preschool through middle adolescence.
Background: Most depressed adults exhibit dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, including cortisol hyperreactivity to psychosocial challenge. In contrast, remarkably little is known about hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity in response to psychosocial challenge among at-risk children and adolescents. This study examined cortisol response to psychosocial challenge in nondepressed, at-risk, dysphoric and nondysphoric control youth across different developmentally salient age groups (preschool, third-, sixth-, and ninth-graders).
Methods: Two samples of youth (Study 1-preschoolers; Study 2-third-, sixth-, and ninth-graders) without a history of clinical depression were administered developmentally appropriate psychosocial challenges. Of these nondepressed children, we examined youth at high-risk (n = 60) and low-risk (n = 223) status, as defined by elevated but …
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Hajat A, Diez-Roux A, Franklin TG, Seeman T, Shrager S, Ranjit N, Castro C, Watson K, Sanchez B, Kirschbaum C (2010)cohort or longitudinalMEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usPsychoneuroendocrinology141 citations Socioeconomic and race/ethnic differences in daily salivary cortisol profiles: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis.
It has often been hypothesized that stress and its biological consequences mediate the relationship between low socioeconomic status (SES) or minority status and poor cardiovascular disease outcomes. The objective of this study was to determine if daily cortisol patterns, a biomarker of the stress response, differ by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Data were collected from 935 Black, White and Hispanic adults age 48-90 years old. Salivary cortisol samples were collected six times per day over 3 days: at awakening, 30min later, at 1000h, noon, 1800h and at bedtime. Blacks and Hispanics had lower levels of wake-up cortisol and less steep early declines, while Blacks had flatter and Hispanics steeper late day declines relative to Whites. Similarly the low socioeconomic status group also had lower levels of wake-up cortisol and less steep decline during the early part of the day. Th…
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