Memory and learning

وَقَالَ ٱلَّذِينَ أُوتُواْ ٱلۡعِلۡمَ وَٱلۡإِيمَٰنَ لَقَدۡ لَبِثۡتُمۡ فِي كِتَٰبِ ٱللَّهِ إِلَىٰ يَوۡمِ ٱلۡبَعۡثِۖ فَهَٰذَا يَوۡمُ ٱلۡبَعۡثِ وَلَٰكِنَّكُمۡ كُنتُمۡ لَا تَعۡلَمُونَ

but those endowed with knowledge and faith will say, ‘In accordance with God’s decree, you actually lingered till the Day of Resurrection: this is the Day of Resurrection, yet you did not know.’

وَٱتَّبَعُواْ مَا تَتۡلُواْ ٱلشَّيَٰطِينُ عَلَىٰ مُلۡكِ سُلَيۡمَٰنَۖ وَمَا كَفَرَ سُلَيۡمَٰنُ وَلَٰكِنَّ ٱلشَّيَٰطِينَ كَفَرُواْ يُعَلِّمُونَ ٱلنَّاسَ ٱلسِّحۡرَ وَمَآ أُنزِلَ عَلَى ٱلۡمَلَكَيۡنِ بِبَابِلَ هَٰرُوتَ وَمَٰرُوتَۚ وَمَا يُعَلِّمَانِ مِنۡ أَحَدٍ حَتَّىٰ يَقُولَآ إِنَّمَا نَحۡنُ فِتۡنَةࣱ فَلَا تَكۡفُرۡۖ فَيَتَعَلَّمُونَ مِنۡهُمَا مَا يُفَرِّقُونَ بِهِۦ بَيۡنَ ٱلۡمَرۡءِ وَزَوۡجِهِۦۚ وَمَا هُم بِضَآرِّينَ بِهِۦ مِنۡ أَحَدٍ إِلَّا بِإِذۡنِ ٱللَّهِۚ وَيَتَعَلَّمُونَ مَا يَضُرُّهُمۡ وَلَا يَنفَعُهُمۡۚ وَلَقَدۡ عَلِمُواْ لَمَنِ ٱشۡتَرَىٰهُ مَا لَهُۥ فِي ٱلۡأٓخِرَةِ مِنۡ خَلَٰقࣲۚ وَلَبِئۡسَ مَا شَرَوۡاْ بِهِۦٓ أَنفُسَهُمۡۚ لَوۡ كَانُواْ يَعۡلَمُونَ

and followed what the evil ones had fabricated about the Kingdom of Solomon instead. Not that Solomon himself was a disbeliever; it was the evil ones who were disbelievers. They taught people witchcraft and what was revealed in Babylon to the two angels Harut and Marut. Yet these two never taught anyone without first warning him, ‘We are sent only to tempt- do not disbelieve.’ From these two, they learned what can cause discord between man and wife, although they harm no one with it except by God’s leave. They learned what harmed them, not what benefited them, knowing full well that whoever gained [this knowledge] would lose any share in the Hereafter. Evil indeed is the [price] for which they sold their souls, if only they knew

يَٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓاْ إِذَا تَدَايَنتُم بِدَيۡنٍ إِلَىٰٓ أَجَلࣲ مُّسَمࣰّ ى فَٱكۡتُبُوهُۚ وَلۡيَكۡتُب بَّيۡنَكُمۡ كَاتِبُۢ بِٱلۡعَدۡلِۚ وَلَا يَأۡبَ كَاتِبٌ أَن يَكۡتُبَ كَمَا عَلَّمَهُ ٱللَّهُۚ فَلۡيَكۡتُبۡ وَلۡيُمۡلِلِ ٱلَّذِي عَلَيۡهِ ٱلۡحَقُّ وَلۡيَتَّقِ ٱللَّهَ رَبَّهُۥ وَلَا يَبۡخَسۡ مِنۡهُ شَيۡـࣰٔ اۚ فَإِن كَانَ ٱلَّذِي عَلَيۡهِ ٱلۡحَقُّ سَفِيهًا أَوۡ ضَعِيفًا أَوۡ لَا يَسۡتَطِيعُ أَن يُمِلَّ هُوَ فَلۡيُمۡلِلۡ وَلِيُّهُۥ بِٱلۡعَدۡلِۚ وَٱسۡتَشۡهِدُواْ شَهِيدَيۡنِ مِن رِّجَالِكُمۡۖ فَإِن لَّمۡ يَكُونَا رَجُلَيۡنِ فَرَجُلࣱ وَٱمۡرَأَتَانِ مِمَّن تَرۡضَوۡنَ مِنَ ٱلشُّهَدَآءِ أَن تَضِلَّ إِحۡدَىٰهُمَا فَتُذَكِّرَ إِحۡدَىٰهُمَا ٱلۡأُخۡرَىٰۚ وَلَا يَأۡبَ ٱلشُّهَدَآءُ إِذَا مَا دُعُواْۚ وَلَا تَسۡـَٔمُوٓاْ أَن تَكۡتُبُوهُ صَغِيرًا أَوۡ كَبِيرًا إِلَىٰٓ أَجَلِهِۦۚ ذَٰلِكُمۡ أَقۡسَطُ عِندَ ٱللَّهِ وَأَقۡوَمُ لِلشَّهَٰدَةِ وَأَدۡنَىٰٓ أَلَّا تَرۡتَابُوٓاْ إِلَّآ أَن تَكُونَ تِجَٰرَةً حَاضِرَةࣰ تُدِيرُونَهَا بَيۡنَكُمۡ فَلَيۡسَ عَلَيۡكُمۡ جُنَاحٌ أَلَّا تَكۡتُبُوهَاۗ وَأَشۡهِدُوٓاْ إِذَا تَبَايَعۡتُمۡۚ وَلَا يُضَآرَّ كَاتِبࣱ وَلَا شَهِيدࣱۚ وَإِن تَفۡعَلُواْ فَإِنَّهُۥ فُسُوقُۢ بِكُمۡۗ وَٱتَّقُواْ ٱللَّهَۖ وَيُعَلِّمُكُمُ ٱللَّهُۗ وَٱللَّهُ بِكُلِّ شَيۡءٍ عَلِيمࣱ‏

You who believe, when you contract a debt for a stated term, put it down in writing: have a scribe write it down justly between you. No scribe should refuse to write: let him write as God has taught him, let the debtor dictate, and let him fear God, his Lord, and not diminish [the debt] at all. If the debtor is feeble-minded, weak, or unable to dictate, then let his guardian dictate justly. Call in two men as witnesses. If two men are not there, then call one man and two women out of those you approve as witnesses, so that if one of the two women should forget the other can remind her. Let the witnesses not refuse when they are summoned. Do not disdain to write the debt down, be it small or large, along with the time it falls due: this way is more equitable in God’s eyes, more reliable as testimony, and more likely to prevent doubts arising between you. But if the merchandise is there and you hand it over, there is no blame on you if you do not write it down. Have witnesses present whenever you trade with one another, and let no harm be done to either scribe or witness, for if you did cause them harm, it would be a crime on your part. Be mindful of God, and He will teach you: He has full knowledge of everything

وَلَن تَرۡضَىٰ عَنكَ ٱلۡيَهُودُ وَلَا ٱلنَّصَٰرَىٰ حَتَّىٰ تَتَّبِعَ مِلَّتَهُمۡۗ قُلۡ إِنَّ هُدَى ٱللَّهِ هُوَ ٱلۡهُدَىٰۗ وَلَئِنِ ٱتَّبَعۡتَ أَهۡوَآءَهُم بَعۡدَ ٱلَّذِي جَآءَكَ مِنَ ٱلۡعِلۡمِ مَا لَكَ مِنَ ٱللَّهِ مِن وَلِيࣲّ وَلَا نَصِيرٍ

The Jews and the Christians will never be pleased with you unless you follow their ways. Say, ‘God’s guidance is the only true guidance.’ If you were to follow their desires after the knowledge that has come to you, you would find no one to protect you from God or help you

وَلَئِنۡ أَتَيۡتَ ٱلَّذِينَ أُوتُواْ ٱلۡكِتَٰبَ بِكُلِّ ءَايَةࣲ مَّا تَبِعُواْ قِبۡلَتَكَۚ وَمَآ أَنتَ بِتَابِعࣲ قِبۡلَتَهُمۡۚ وَمَا بَعۡضُهُم بِتَابِعࣲ قِبۡلَةَ بَعۡضࣲۚ وَلَئِنِ ٱتَّبَعۡتَ أَهۡوَآءَهُم مِّنۢ بَعۡدِ مَا جَآءَكَ مِنَ ٱلۡعِلۡمِ إِنَّكَ إِذࣰ ا لَّمِنَ ٱلظَّٰلِمِينَ

Yet even if you brought every proof to those who were given the Scripture, they would not follow your prayer direction, nor will you follow theirs, nor indeed will any of them follow one another’s direction. If you [Prophet] were to follow their desires, after the knowledge brought to you, you would be doing wrong

وَقَالَ لَهُمۡ نَبِيُّهُمۡ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ قَدۡ بَعَثَ لَكُمۡ طَالُوتَ مَلِكࣰ اۚ قَالُوٓاْ أَنَّىٰ يَكُونُ لَهُ ٱلۡمُلۡكُ عَلَيۡنَا وَنَحۡنُ أَحَقُّ بِٱلۡمُلۡكِ مِنۡهُ وَلَمۡ يُؤۡتَ سَعَةࣰ مِّنَ ٱلۡمَالِۚ قَالَ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ ٱصۡطَفَىٰهُ عَلَيۡكُمۡ وَزَادَهُۥ بَسۡطَةࣰ فِي ٱلۡعِلۡمِ وَٱلۡجِسۡمِۖ وَٱللَّهُ يُؤۡتِي مُلۡكَهُۥ مَن يَشَآءُۚ وَٱللَّهُ وَٰسِعٌ عَلِيمࣱ‏

Their prophet said to them, ‘God has now appointed Talut to be your king,’ but they said, ‘How can he be king over us when we have a greater right to rule than he? He does not even have great wealth.’ He said, ‘God has chosen him over you, and has given him great knowledge and stature. God grants His authority to whoever He pleases: God is magnanimous, all knowing.’

(And follow that which the devils falsely related against the kingdom of Solomon�) [2:102]. Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Qantari informed us> Abu'l-Fadl al-Haddadi> Abu Yazid al-Khalidi> Ishaq ibn Ibrahim> Jarir> Husayn ibn 'Abd al-Rahman> 'Imran ibn al-Harith who said: �Once as we were sitting with Ibn 'Abbas when he said: 'The devils used to eavesdrop on heaven. One of them would bring a word of truth from therein, and when he is trusted for telling the truth, he would add to it seventy lies with which he earns the hearts of people. When Solomon came to know about it, he took it and buried it beneath his throne. When he died, a devil stood in the street and said: 'Shall I guide you to Solomon's guarded treasure, the like of which he does not have?' They said: 'Yes, do'. He said: 'It is under his throne; go and unearth it'. They said: 'This is magic'. Different nations then copied it f

But those who have been given knowledge and faith of angels and others shall say ‘You have remained according to God’s decree in accordance with what He had decreed for you in His prior knowledge until the Day of Resurrection. This is the Day of Resurrection which you rejected but you did not know’ that it would come to pass.

And on the Day that the Hour will be established, the criminals will swear that they stayed not but an hour – thus were they ever deluded (55)And those who have been bestowed with knowledge and Faith will say: "Indeed you have stayed according to the decree of Allah, until the Day of Resurrection; so this is the Day of Resurrection, but you knew not. (56)So, on that Day no excuse of theirs will avail those who did wrong, nor will they be allowed to return to seek (Allah's) pleasure (57) The Ignorance of the Disbelievers in this World and in the Hereafter Here Allah tells us of the ignorance of the disbelievers in this world and in the Hereafter. In this world they worship idols, and in the Hereafter they will also display great ignorance. They will swear by Allah that they did not even stay for one hour in this world. They will mean that there was not enough time given to establish pro

(And the Jews will not be pleased with thee, nor will the Christians�) [2:120]. The commentators of the Qur�an said: �They used to ask the Prophet, Allah bless him and give him peace, for truce, giving him the impression that if he were to accord them truce and respite they will follow him and believe in him. And so Allah, exalted is He, revealed this verse�. But Ibn �Abbas said: �This was revealed regarding the qiblah. This is because the Jews of Medina and the Christians of Najran were in the hope that the Prophet, Allah bless him and give him peace, will remain praying to their qiblah. When Allah directed him to pray toward the Ka�bah, they were disappointed and despaired of him ever following their religion. And so Allah revealed this verse�.

And they follow wa’ttaba‘ū is a supplement to nabadha ‘it cast away’ what the devils used to relate during the time of Solomon’s kingdom in the way of sorcery it is said that they the devils buried these books of sorcery underneath his throne when his kingdom was taken from him; it is also said that they used to listen stealthily and add fabrications to what they heard and then pass it on to the priests who would compile it in books; this would be disseminated and rumours spread that the jinn had knowledge of the Unseen. Solomon gathered these books and buried them. When he died the devils showed people where these books were and the latter brought them out and found that they contained sorcery and said ‘Your kingdom was only thanks to what is in here’; they then took to learning them and rejected the Scriptures of their prophets. In order to demonstrate Solomon’s innocence and in repudi

O you who believe when you contract when you are dealing with a debt such as in prepayment for future delivery of goods or a loan one upon another for a stated a known term write it down as confirmation and security against any dispute; and let a writer write it the contract of debt down between you justly accurately not increasing or decreasing the amount or the terms; and let not any writer refuse to write it down if he is requested for such a task as God has taught him the kāf of ka-mā ‘as’ is semantically connected to the verb ya’ba ‘refuse’ that is just as He has given him the advantage of knowing how to write he should not be niggardly in this respect; so let him write repeated for emphasis and let the debtor dictate to the one writing the contract for he is the one being witnessed and must be fully aware of his obligations; and let him fear God his Lord when dictating and not dimi

حَدَّثَنَا عَلِيُّ بْنُ حُجْرٍ، قَالَ أَخْبَرَنَا يَحْيَى بْنُ سَعِيدٍ الأُمَوِيُّ، عَنِ ابْنِ جُرَيْجٍ، عَنِ ابْنِ أَبِي مُلَيْكَةَ، عَنْ أُمِّ سَلَمَةَ، قَالَتْ كَانَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم يُقَطِّعُ قِرَاءَتَهُ يَقْرَأُ ‏(‏الْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ ‏)‏ ثُمَّ يَقِفُ ‏(‏ الرَّحْمَنِ الرَّحِيمِ ‏)‏ ثُمَّ يَقِفُ وَكَانَ يَقْرَؤُهَا ‏(‏مَلِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ ‏)‏ قَالَ أَبُو عِيسَى هَذَا حَدِيثٌ غَرِيبٌ وَبِهِ يَقْرَأُ أَبُو عُبَيْدٍ وَيَخْتَارُهُ هَكَذَا رَوَى يَحْيَى بْنُ سَعِيدٍ الأُمَوِيُّ وَغَيْرُهُ عَنِ ابْنِ جُرَيْجٍ عَنِ ابْنِ أَبِي مُلَيْكَةَ عَنْ أُمِّ سَلَمَةَ وَلَيْسَ إِسْنَادُهُ بِمُتَّصِلٍ لأَنَّ اللَّيْثَ بْنَ سَعْدٍ رَوَى هَذَا الْحَدِيثَ عَنِ ابْنِ أَبِي مُلَيْكَةَ عَنْ يَعْلَى بْنِ مَمْلَكٍ عَنْ أُمِّ سَلَمَةَ أَنَّهَا وَصَفَتْ قِرَاءَةَ النَّبِيِّ صلى الله عليه وسلم حَرْفًا حَرْفًا وَحَدِيثُ اللَّيْثِ أَصَحُّ وَلَيْسَ فِي حَدِيثِ اللَّيْثِ وَكَانَ يَقْرَأُ ‏(‏مَلِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ ‏)‏ ‏.‏

Narrated Ibn Abi Mulaikah:that Umm Salamah said: "The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) would separate recitation reciting: 'Al-Hamdulillahi Rabbil-'Alamin' then he would stop. 'Ar-Rahmanir-Rahim' then he would stop. And he would recite it: 'Maliki Yawmid-Din

حَدَّثَنَا الْحُسَيْنُ بْنُ مُحَمَّدٍ الْبَصْرِيُّ، قَالَ حَدَّثَنَا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ بْنُ حَفْصٍ، قَالَ حَدَّثَنَا ثَابِتٌ الْبُنَانِيُّ، عَنْ شَهْرِ بْنِ حَوْشَبٍ، عَنْ أُمِّ سَلَمَةَ، أَنَّ النَّبِيَّ صلى الله عليه وسلم كَانَ يَقْرَؤُهَا ‏(‏إِنَّهُ عَمِلَ غَيْرَ صَالِحٍ ‏)‏ ‏.‏ قَالَ أَبُو عِيسَى هَذَا حَدِيثٌ قَدْ رَوَاهُ غَيْرُ وَاحِدٍ عَنْ ثَابِتٍ الْبُنَانِيِّ نَحْوَ هَذَا وَهُوَ حَدِيثُ ثَابِتٍ الْبُنَانِيِّ وَرُوِيَ هَذَا الْحَدِيثُ أَيْضًا عَنْ شَهْرِ بْنِ حَوْشَبٍ عَنْ أَسْمَاءَ بِنْتِ يَزِيدَ ‏.‏ وَسَمِعْتُ عَبْدَ بْنَ حُمَيْدٍ يَقُولُ أَسْمَاءُ بِنْتُ يَزِيدَ هِيَ أُمُّ سَلَمَةَ الأَنْصَارِيَّةُ ‏.‏ قَالَ أَبُو عِيسَى كِلاَ الْحَدِيثَيْنِ عِنْدِي وَاحِدٌ وَقَدْ رَوَى شَهْرُ بْنُ حَوْشَبٍ غَيْرَ حَدِيثٍ عَنْ أُمِّ سَلَمَةَ الأَنْصَارِيَّةِ وَهِيَ أَسْمَاءُ بِنْتُ يَزِيدَ وَقَدْ رُوِيَ عَنْ عَائِشَةَ عَنِ النَّبِيِّ صلى الله عليه وسلم نَحْوُ هَذَا ‏.‏

Narrated Umm Salamah:"The Prophet (ﷺ) would recite: 'Innahu 'Amila Ghaira Salih

حَدَّثَنَا عَبْدُ اللَّهِ بْنُ يُوسُفَ، أَخْبَرَنَا مَالِكٌ، عَنْ يَحْيَى بْنِ سَعِيدٍ، عَنْ عَبْدِ الرَّحْمَنِ الأَعْرَجِ، عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ ابْنِ بُحَيْنَةَ ـ رضى الله عنه ـ أَنَّهُ قَالَ إِنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَامَ مِنِ اثْنَتَيْنِ مِنَ الظُّهْرِ لَمْ يَجْلِسْ بَيْنَهُمَا، فَلَمَّا قَضَى صَلاَتَهُ سَجَدَ سَجْدَتَيْنِ ثُمَّ سَلَّمَ بَعْدَ ذَلِكَ‏.‏

Narrated `Abdullah bin Buhaina:Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) got up after the second rak`a of the Zuhr prayer without sitting in between (the second and the third rak`at). When he finished the prayer he performed two prostrations (of Sahu) and then finished the prayer with Taslim

حَدَّثَنَا أَبُو الْوَلِيدِ، حَدَّثَنَا شُعْبَةُ، عَنِ الْحَكَمِ، عَنْ إِبْرَاهِيمَ، عَنْ عَلْقَمَةَ، عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ ـ رضى الله عنه ـ أَنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم صَلَّى الظُّهْرَ خَمْسًا فَقِيلَ لَهُ أَزِيدَ فِي الصَّلاَةِ فَقَالَ ‏ "‏ وَمَا ذَاكَ ‏"‏‏.‏ قَالَ صَلَّيْتَ خَمْسًا‏.‏ فَسَجَدَ سَجْدَتَيْنِ بَعْدَ مَا سَلَّمَ‏.‏

Narrated' `Abdullah:Once Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) offered five rak`at in the Zuhr prayer, and somebody asked him whether there was some increase in the prayer. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "What is that?" He said, "You have offered five rak`at." So Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) performed two prostrations of Sahu after Taslim

أَخْبَرَنَا عَمْرُو بْنُ عَلِيٍّ، قَالَ حَدَّثَنَا يَحْيَى بْنُ سَعِيدٍ، قَالَ حَدَّثَنَا حَمَّادُ بْنُ زَيْدٍ، قَالَ حَدَّثَنَا غَيْلاَنُ بْنُ جَرِيرٍ، عَنْ مُطَرِّفِ بْنِ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ، قَالَ صَلَّى عَلِيُّ بْنُ أَبِي طَالِبٍ فَكَانَ يُكَبِّرُ فِي كُلِّ خَفْضٍ وَرَفْعٍ يُتِمُّ التَّكْبِيرَ ‏.‏ فَقَالَ عِمْرَانُ بْنُ حُصَيْنٍ لَقَدْ ذَكَّرَنِي هَذَا صَلاَةَ رَسُولِ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم ‏.‏

It was narrated that Mutarrif bin 'Abdullah said:"Ali bin Abi Talib prayed, and he said the takbir every time he went down and came up, in all movements of the prayer. 'Imran bin Husain said: 'This reminds me of the prayer of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ)

أَخْبَرَنَا يَعْقُوبُ بْنُ إِبْرَاهِيمَ الدَّوْرَقِيُّ، وَمُحَمَّدُ بْنُ بَشَّارٍ، - وَاللَّفْظُ لَهُ - قَالاَ حَدَّثَنَا يَحْيَى بْنُ سَعِيدٍ، قَالَ حَدَّثَنَا عَبْدُ الْحَمِيدِ بْنُ جَعْفَرٍ، قَالَ حَدَّثَنِي مُحَمَّدُ بْنُ عَمْرِو بْنِ عَطَاءٍ، عَنْ أَبِي حُمَيْدٍ السَّاعِدِيِّ، قَالَ سَمِعْتُهُ يُحَدِّثُ، قَالَ كَانَ النَّبِيُّ صلى الله عليه وسلم إِذَا قَامَ مِنَ السَّجْدَتَيْنِ كَبَّرَ وَرَفَعَ يَدَيْهِ حَتَّى يُحَاذِيَ بِهِمَا مَنْكِبَيْهِ كَمَا صَنَعَ حِينَ افْتَتَحَ الصَّلاَةَ ‏.‏

It was narrated from Abu Humaid As-Sa'idi that:When the Prophet (ﷺ) stood up following two prostrations, he would say the takbir and raise his hands until they were level with his shoulders, as he had done at the beginning of the prayer

وفيه سبعة أبواب الباب الأول في فضل العلم والتعليم والتعلم

وقال الزهري رحمه الله العلم ذكر ولا تحبه إلا ذكران الرجال فضيلة التعلم

وقيل أول العلم الصمت ثم الاستماع ثم الحفظ ثم العمل ثم نشره

| الفائدة الأولى التعليم والتعلم

فالمحتاج إلى التعلم لما هو فرض عليه عاص بالعزلة

والسفر هو المعين على التعلم في الابتداء

Cued memory reactivation during sleep influences skill learning.: Information acquired during waking can be reactivated during sleep, promoting memory stabilization. After people learned to produce two melodies in time with moving visual symbols, we enhanced relative performance by presenting one melody during an afternoon nap. Electrophysiological signs of memory processing during sleep corroborated the notion that appropriate auditory stimulation that does not disrupt sleep can nevertheless bias memory consolidation in relevant brain circuitry.

The effects of acute stress on episodic memory: A meta-analysis and integrative review.: A growing body of research has indicated that acute stress can critically impact memory. However, there are a number of inconsistencies in the literature, and important questions remain regarding the conditions under which stress effects emerge as well as basic questions about how stress impacts different phases of memory. In this meta-analysis, we examined 113 independent studies in humans with 6,216 participants that explored effects of stress on encoding, postencoding, retrieval, or postreact

Off-line learning of motor skill memory: a double dissociation of goal and movement.: Acquiring a new skill requires learning multiple aspects of a task simultaneously. For example, learning a piano sonata requires learning the musical notes and being able to implement this goal by learning the appropriate sequence of finger movements. After practice, skill continues to develop off-line during a period of consolidation. Here we show that different aspects of a procedural memory are processed separately during consolidation: Only the movement sequence is enhanced over the day; whe

The role of sleep in false memory formation.: Memories are not stored as exact copies of our experiences. As a result, remembering is subject not only to memory failure, but to inaccuracies and distortions as well. Although such distortions are often retained or even enhanced over time, sleep's contribution to the development of false memories is unknown. Here, we report that a night of sleep increases both veridical and false recall in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, compared to an equivalent period of daytime wakefulness. But

Memory for therapy in bipolar disorder and comorbid insomnia.: Objective: To examine the extent to which patients recall the contents of therapy from 1 session to the next and to determine whether recall is associated with treatment outcome. Method: Thirty interepisode individuals with bipolar disorder and comorbid insomnia (ages 21-62 years, 56.7% women, 56.7% Caucasian) participated in a randomized controlled trial of psychotherapies. Patients received either cognitive behavior therapy for insomnia (CBTI-BP; n = 17) or psychoeducation (PE; n = 13). At the

Computerized cognitive training in cognitively healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of effect modifiers.: Background: New effective interventions to attenuate age-related cognitive decline are a global priority. Computerized cognitive training (CCT) is believed to be safe and can be inexpensive, but neither its efficacy in enhancing cognitive performance in healthy older adults nor the impact of design factors on such efficacy has been systematically analyzed. Our aim therefore was to quantitatively assess whether CCT programs can enhance cognition in healthy older adults, discriminate responsive fr

Memory encoding and aging: a neurocognitive perspective.

This review article surveys the evidence for age-related changes in memory from cognitive and neuroimaging studies. It is probable that the observed declines in episodic memory with increasing age are a consequence of impairments in both acquisition (encoding) and retrieval - possibly for similar reasons - but the present review focuses on the former set of processes. An additional emphasis is on a processing approach to understanding age-related encoding deficiencies; we suggest that many problems stem from a decline in the ability to self-initiate deeper semantic processing operations. The article briefly discusses the role of declining sensory and perceptual abilities, but focuses primarily on the nature of processing resources, their consequences for memory acquisition, and on age-related changes in cognition and neural functioning. We also survey the evidence for neuroplasticity in …

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System consolidation of memory during sleep.

Over the past two decades, research has accumulated compelling evidence that sleep supports the formation of long-term memory. The standard two-stage memory model that has been originally elaborated for declarative memory assumes that new memories are transiently encoded into a temporary store (represented by the hippocampus in the declarative memory system) before they are gradually transferred into a long-term store (mainly represented by the neocortex), or are forgotten. Based on this model, we propose that sleep, as an offline mode of brain processing, serves the 'active system consolidation' of memory, i.e. the process in which newly encoded memory representations become redistributed to other neuron networks serving as long-term store. System consolidation takes place during slow-wave sleep (SWS) rather than rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. The concept of active system consolidation…

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Mouse testing methods in psychoneuroimmunology: an overview of how to measure sickness, depressive/anxietal, cognitive, and physical activity behaviors.

The field of psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) aims to uncover the processes and consequences of nervous, immune, and endocrine system relationships. Behavior is a consequence of such interactions and manifests from a complex interweave of factors including immune-to-neural and neural-to-immune communication. Often the signaling molecules involved during a particular episode of neuroimmune activation are not known but behavioral response provides evidence that bioactives such as neurotransmitters and cytokines are perturbed. Immunobehavioral phenotyping is a first-line approach when examining the neuroimmune system and its reaction to immune stimulation or suppression. Behavioral response is significantly more sensitive than direct measurement of a single specific bioactive and can quickly and efficiently rule in or out relevance of a particular immune challenge or therapeutic to neuroimmunity…

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Memory maintenance by PKMζ--an evolutionary perspective.

Long-term memory is believed to be maintained by persistent modifications of synaptic transmission within the neural circuits that mediate behavior. Thus, long-term potentiation (LTP) is widely studied as a potential physiological basis for the persistent enhancement of synaptic strength that might sustain memory. Whereas the molecular mechanisms that initially induce LTP have been extensively characterized, the mechanisms that persistently maintain the potentiation have not. Recently, however, a candidate molecular mechanism linking the maintenance of LTP and the storage of long-term memory has been identified. The persistent activity of the autonomously active, atypical protein kinase C (aPKC) isoform, PKMζ, is both necessary and sufficient for maintaining LTP. Furthermore, blocking PKMζ activity by pharmacological or dominant negative inhibitors disrupts previously stored long-term me…

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Parallel associative processing in the dorsal striatum: segregation of stimulus-response and cognitive control subregions.

Although evidence suggests that the dorsal striatum contributes to multiple learning and memory functions, there nevertheless remains considerable disagreement on the specific associative roles of different neuroanatomical subregions. We review evidence indicating that the dorsolateral striatum (DLS) is a substrate for stimulus-response habit formation - incremental strengthening of simple S-R bonds - via input from sensorimotor neocortex while the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) contributes to behavioral flexibility - the cognitive control of behavior - via prefrontal and limbic circuits engaged in relational and spatial information processing. The parallel circuits through dorsal striatum interact with incentive/affective motivational processing in the ventral striatum and portions of the prefrontal cortex leading to overt responding under specific testing conditions. Converging evidence ob…

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Interconception care for couples after perinatal loss: a comprehensive review of the literature.

Perinatal loss can be emotionally devastating for couples who experience miscarriage, fetal or neonatal death. Nurses in a variety of settings can assist couples through their grief by providing emotional support, giving information about the grief process, and in planning for a future pregnancy or deciding to forego future childbearing. This article explicates the relationship between grief and perinatal loss and its effects on couples, specifically in the interconception period, when the initial grief and distress have begun to subside. Interconception care focuses on bridging the couple from the end of the postpartum period to the subsequent pregnancy or decision not to conceive again. Nurses assist couples in distinguishing between uncomplicated grief, complicated grief, and depression, and make appropriate referrals. Openness to expressions of grief, helping couples mobilize support…

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Dehydration influences mood and cognition: a plausible hypothesis?

The hypothesis was considered that a low fluid intake disrupts cognition and mood. Most research has been carried out on young fit adults, who typically have exercised, often in heat. The results of these studies are inconsistent, preventing any conclusion. Even if the findings had been consistent, confounding variables such as fatigue and increased temperature make it unwise to extrapolate these findings. Thus in young adults there is little evidence that under normal living conditions dehydration disrupts cognition, although this may simply reflect a lack of relevant evidence. There remains the possibility that particular populations are at high risk of dehydration. It is known that renal function declines in many older individuals and thirst mechanisms become less effective. Although there are a few reports that more dehydrated older adults perform cognitive tasks less well, the body …

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The use of cognitive enhancers in animal models of fear extinction.

In anxiety disorders, such as posttraumatic stress disorders and phobias, classical conditioning pairs natural (unconditioned) fear-eliciting stimuli with contextual or discrete cues resulting in enduring fear responses to multiple stimuli. Extinction is an active learning process that results in a reduction of conditioned fear responses after conditioned stimuli are no longer paired with unconditioned stimuli. Fear extinction often produces incomplete effects and this highlights the relative permanence of bonds between conditioned stimuli and conditioned fear responses. The animal research literature is rich in its demonstration of cognitive enhancing agents that alter fear extinction. This review specifically examines the fear extinguishing effects of cognitive enhancers that act on gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamatergic, cholinergic, adrenergic, dopaminergic, and cannabinoid si…

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Physical exercise as a preventive or disease-modifying treatment of dementia and brain aging.

A rapidly growing literature strongly suggests that exercise, specifically aerobic exercise, may attenuate cognitive impairment and reduce dementia risk. We used PubMed (keywords exercise and cognition) and manuscript bibliographies to examine the published evidence of a cognitive neuroprotective effect of exercise. Meta-analyses of prospective studies documented a significantly reduced risk of dementia associated with midlife exercise; similarly, midlife exercise significantly reduced later risks of mild cognitive impairment in several studies. Among patients with dementia or mild cognitive impairment, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) documented better cognitive scores after 6 to 12 months of exercise compared with sedentary controls. Meta-analyses of RCTs of aerobic exercise in healthy adults were also associated with significantly improved cognitive scores. One year of aerobic exer…

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Cognitive and functional outcome after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Background and purpose: Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) is a medical emergency characterized by the accumulation of blood in the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain. The acute treatment of aSAH is well documented but less is known about the long-term effects of aSAH on cognition and day-to-day functioning. Methods: We reviewed all studies in the past 10 years that have focused on the effects of aSAH on cognition and day-to-day functioning. Results: Sixty-one empirical studies examining cognitive and functional outcome in patients with aSAH met inclusion criteria. Survivors of aSAH commonly experience deficits in memory, executive function, and language. These cognitive impairments interact to affect patients' day-to-day functioning, including activities of daily living, instrumental activities of daily living, return to work, and quality of life. Deficits in cognition and …

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Sleep, memory and emotion.

As critical as waking brain function is to cognition, an extensive literature now indicates that sleep supports equally important, different, yet complementary operations. This review will consider recent and emerging findings implicating sleep, and specific sleep-stage physiologies, in the modulation, regulation and even preparation of cognitive and emotional brain processes. First, evidence for the role of sleep in memory processing will be discussed, principally focusing on declarative memory. Second, at a neural level, several mechanistic models of sleep-dependent plasticity underlying these effects will be reviewed, with a synthesis of these features offered that may explain the ordered structure of sleep, and the orderly evolution of memory stages. Third, accumulating evidence for the role of sleep in associative memory processing will be discussed, suggesting that the long-term go…

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Naps, cognition and performance.

Daytime napping is a frequent habit of many individuals, whether healthy or not, and may occur in a wide variety of contexts. There are several reasons for napping in the human adult, including prophylactic strategies or recuperative need, respectively before or after sleep loss, or even pure appetitive drive. Thus, it is of great theoretical and clinical interest to assess the impact of naps on individuals' performance, especially on cognitive functioning. As the outgrowth of a symposium held by the authors at the 5th Congress of the World Federation of Sleep Research and Sleep Medicine Societies in Cairns, Australia, September 2007, this review will specifically explore: a) the newly developed experimental daytime split-sleep schedules and their effects on recovery, compared with those deriving from a single consolidated sleep episode of equal duration; b) whether naps may be beneficia…

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Enhancing exposure therapy for anxiety disorders with glucocorticoids: from basic mechanisms of emotional learning to clinical applications.

Current neurophysiological and psychological accounts view exposure therapy as the clinical analog of extinction learning that results in persistent modifications of the fear memory involved in the pathogenesis, symptomatology, and maintenance of anxiety disorders. Evidence from studies in animals and humans indicate that glucocorticoids have the potential to facilitate the processes that underlie extinction learning during exposure therapy. Particularly, glucocorticoids can restrict retrieval of previous aversive learning episodes and enhance consolidation of memory traces relating to non-fearful responding in feared situations. Thus, glucocorticoid treatment especially in combination with exposure therapy might be a promising approach to optimize treatment of anxiety disorders. This review examines the processes involved in aversive conditioning, fear learning and fear extinction, and …

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Changing fear: the neurocircuitry of emotion regulation.

The ability to alter emotional responses as circumstances change is a critical component of normal adaptive behavior and is often impaired in psychological disorders. In this review, we discuss four emotional regulation techniques that have been investigated as means to control fear: extinction, cognitive regulation, active coping, and reconsolidation. For each technique, we review what is known about the underlying neural systems, combining findings from animal models and human neuroscience. The current evidence suggests that these different means of regulating fear depend on both overlapping and distinct components of a fear circuitry.

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Posttraumatic stress disorder: the role of medial prefrontal cortex and amygdala.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is characterized by recurrent distressing memories of an emotionally traumatic event. In this review, the authors present neuroscientific data highlighting the function of two brain areas--the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)--in PTSD and related emotional processes. A convergent body of human and nonhuman studies suggests that the amygdala mediates the acquisition and expression of conditioned fear and the enhancement of emotional memory, whereas the vmPFC mediates the extinction of conditioned fear and the volitional regulation of negative emotion. It has been theorized that the vmPFC exerts inhibition on the amygdala, and that a defect in this inhibition could account for the symptoms of PTSD. This theory is supported by functional imaging studies of PTSD patients, who exhibit hypoactivity in the vmPFC but hyperactivity in the am…

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The role of sleep in cognition and emotion.

As critical as waking brain function is to cognition, an extensive literature now indicates that sleep supports equally important, different yet complementary operations. This review will consider recent and emerging findings implicating sleep and specific sleep-stage physiologies in the modulation, regulation, and even preparation of cognitive and emotional brain processes. First, evidence for the role of sleep in memory processing will be discussed, principally focusing on declarative memory. Second, at a neural level several mechanistic models of sleep-dependent plasticity underlying these effects will be reviewed, with a synthesis of these features offered that may explain the ordered structure of sleep, and the orderly evolution of memory stages. Third, accumulating evidence for the role of sleep in associative memory processing will be discussed, suggesting that the long-term goal …

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The influence of substance use on adolescent brain development.

Adolescence is a unique period in neurodevelopment. Alcohol and marijuana use are common. Recent research has indicated that adolescent substance users show abnormalities on measures of brain functioning, which is linked to changes in neurocognition over time. Abnormalities have been seen in brain structure volume, white matter quality, and activation to cognitive tasks, even in youth with as little as 1-2 years of heavy drinking and consumption levels of 20 drinks per month, especially if > 4-5 drinks are consumed on a single occasion. Heavy marijuana users show some subtle anomalies too, but generally not the same degree of divergence from demographically similar non-using adolescents. This article reviews the extant literature on neurocognition, brain structure, and brain function in adolescent substance users with an emphasis on the most commonly used substances, and in the context o…

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Short-term and long-term plasticity at corticostriatal synapses: implications for learning and memory.

The striatum is the major division of the basal ganglia, representing the input station of the circuit and arguably the principal site within the basal ganglia where information processing occurs. Striatal activity is critically involved in motor control and learning. Many parts of the striatum are involved in reward processing and in various forms of learning and memory, such as reward-association learning. Moreover, the striatum appears to be a brain center for habit formation and is likely to be involved in advanced stages of addiction. The critical role played by the striatum in learning and cognitive processes is thought to be based on changes in neuronal activity when specific behavioral tasks are being learned. Accordingly, excitatory corticostriatal synapses onto both striatal projecting spiny neurons and interneurons are able to undergo the main forms of synaptic plasticity, inc…

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"Speed" warps time: methamphetamine's interactive roles in drug abuse, habit formation, and the biological clocks of circadian and interval timing.

The indirect dopamine (DA) agonist methamphetamine (MAP) is evaluated in terms of its impact on the speed of temporal processing across multiple time scales involving both interval and circadian timing. Behavioral and neuropharmacological aspects of drug abuse, habit formation, neurotoxicity, and the potential links between interval and circadian timing are reviewed. The view that emerges is one in which the full spectrum of MAP-induced effects on timing and time perception is both complex and dynamic in as much as it involves DA-glutamate interactions and gene expression within cortico-striatal circuitry spanning oscillation periods ranging from milliseconds to multiple hours. The conclusion is that the psychostimulant properties of MAP are very much embedded within the context of temporal prediction and the anticipation of reward.

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A comprehensive review of the placebo effect: recent advances and current thought.

Our understanding and conceptualization of the placebo effect has shifted in emphasis from a focus on the inert content of a physical placebo agent to the overall simulation of a therapeutic intervention. Research has identified many types of placebo responses driven by different mechanisms depending on the particular context wherein the placebo is given. Some placebo responses, such as analgesia, are initiated and maintained by expectations of symptom change and changes in motivation/emotions. Placebo factors have neurobiological underpinnings and actual effects on the brain and body. They are not just response biases. Other placebo responses result from less conscious processes, such as classical conditioning in the case of immune, hormonal, and respiratory functions. The demonstration of the involvement of placebo mechanisms in clinical trials and routine clinical practice has highlig…

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Mental imagery as an emotional amplifier: application to bipolar disorder.

Cognitions in the form of mental images have a more powerful impact on emotion than their verbal counterparts. This review synthesizes the cognitive science of imagery and emotion with transdiagnostic clinical research, yielding novel predictions for the basis of emotional volatility in bipolar disorder. Anxiety is extremely common in patients with bipolar disorder and is associated with increased dysfunction and suicidality, yet it is poorly understood and rarely treated. Mental imagery is a neglected aspect of bipolar anxiety although in anxiety disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder and social phobia focusing on imagery has been crucial for the development of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). In this review we present a cognitive model of imagery and emotion applied to bipolar disorder. Within this model mental imagery amplifies emotion, drawing on Clark's cyclical panic mode…

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Molecular genetic studies of the arginine vasopressin 1a receptor (AVPR1a) and the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) in human behaviour: from autism to altruism with some notes in between.

Converging evidence from both human and animal studies has highlighted the pervasive role of two neuropeptides, oxytocin (OXT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP), in mammalian social behaviours. Recent molecular genetic studies of the human arginine vasopressin 1a (AVPR1a) and oxytocin (OXTR) receptors have strengthened the evidence regarding the role of these two neuropeptides in a range of normal and pathological behaviours. Significant association between both AVPR1a repeat regions and OXTR single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with risk for autism has been provisionally shown which was mediated by socialization skills in our study. AVPR1a has also been linked to eating behaviour in both clinical and non-clinical groups, perhaps reflecting the social and ritualistic side of eating behaviour. Evidence also suggests that repeat variations in AVPR1a are associated with two other social doma…

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'Synaptic tagging' and 'cross-tagging' and related associative reinforcement processes of functional plasticity as the cellular basis for memory formation.

We focus on new properties of cellular and network processes of memory formation involving 'synaptic tagging' and 'cross-tagging' during long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) as well as associative heterosynaptic interactions, the latter of which are characterized by a time-window of about 1h. About 20 years ago we showed for the first time that the maintenance of LTP, like memory storage, depends on intact protein synthesis and thus consists of at least two temporal phases. Later, similar properties for LTD were shown by our own and other laboratories. Here we describe the requirements for the induction of the transient early-LTP/LTD and of the protein synthesis-dependent late-LTP/LTD. Late-LTP/LTD depend on the associative activation of heterosynaptic inputs, i.e. the synergistic activation of glutamatergic and modulatory reinforcing inputs within specific, effect…

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Progesterone receptors: form and function in brain.

Emerging data indicate that progesterone has multiple non-reproductive functions in the central nervous system to regulate cognition, mood, inflammation, mitochondrial function, neurogenesis and regeneration, myelination and recovery from traumatic brain injury. Progesterone-regulated neural responses are mediated by an array of progesterone receptors (PR) that include the classic nuclear PRA and PRB receptors and splice variants of each, the seven transmembrane domain 7TMPRbeta and the membrane-associated 25-Dx PR (PGRMC1). These PRs induce classic regulation of gene expression while also transducing signaling cascades that originate at the cell membrane and ultimately activate transcription factors. Remarkably, PRs are broadly expressed throughout the brain and can be detected in every neural cell type. The distribution of PRs beyond hypothalamic borders, suggests a much broader role o…

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Inducing and modulating intrusive emotional memories: a review of the trauma film paradigm.

Highly affect-laden memory intrusions are a feature of several psychological disorders with intrusive images of trauma especially associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The trauma film paradigm provides a prospective experimental tool for investigating analogue peri-traumatic cognitive mechanisms underlying intrusion development. We review several historical papers and some more recent key studies that have used the trauma film paradigm. A heuristic diagram is presented, designed to simplify predictions about analogue peri-traumatic processing and intrusion development, which can also be related to the processing elements of recent cognitive models of PTSD. Results show intrusions can be induced in the laboratory and their frequency amplified/attenuated in line with predictions. Successful manipulations include competing task type (visuospatial vs. verbal) and use of a co…

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