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Tafsīr
التفسير6 shownCommentary on the verses above, at most two editions per verse.
en-asbab-al-nuzul-by-al-wahidi on 49:11en-asbab-al-nuzul-by-al-wahidicommentary on an ayah this subject surfaced
(O ye who believe! Let not a folk deride a folk who may be better than they (are)�) [49:11]. This was revealed about Thabit ibn Qays ibn Shimas. The latter was hard of hearing and when he came to see the Messenger of Allah, Allah bless him and give him peace, the Companions made room for him in order for him to sit next to the Prophet so that he could hear him. He came one day when people were already seated and started stepping over people, saying: �Make room! Make room!� One man said to him: �You have found a place, so sit down!� Thabit sat down but he was angry. He tried to tease the man. He said: �Who are you?� The man said: �So-and-so�. Thabit exclaimed: �What, the son of so-and-so�, and he mentioned his mother about whom they used to taunt him in the pre-Islamic period. The man lowered his head out of embarrassment. Then, Allah, exalted is He, revealed this verse. (� not let women
en-al-jalalayn on 49:11en-al-jalalayncommentary on an ayah this subject surfaced
O you who believe do not let any people that is any men among you deride yā ayyuhā’lladhīna āmanū lā yaskhar … to the end of the verse was revealed regarding the Banū Tamīm delegation when they derided the poor among the Muslims like ‘Ammār b. Yāsir and Suhayb al-Rūmī; al-sukhriya means ‘scorn’ and ‘disdain’ another people who may be better than they are in God’s sight; nor let any women from among you deride other women who may be better than they are. And do not defame one another do not cast aspersions on others and hence have aspersions cast on you that is let none among you denigrate another; nor insult one another by nicknames do not call another by a nickname which he detests such as ‘O degenerate one!’ or ‘O disbeliever!’. Evil is the name mentioned out of mockery derision and mutual reviling of immorality after faith! al-fusūqu ba‘da’l-īmāni substitutes for al-ismu ‘the name’ to
en-asbab-al-nuzul-by-al-wahidi on 5:57en-asbab-al-nuzul-by-al-wahidicommentary on an ayah this subject surfaced
(O Ye who believe! Choose not for guardians such of those who received the Scripture before you, and of the disbelievers, as make a jest and sport of your religion) [5:57]. Said Ibn �Abbas: �Rifa�ah ibn Zayd and Suwayd ibn al-Harith were among those who displayed their faith in Islam but were hypocrites. Some Muslim men used to show affection to them, and so Allah, exalted is He, revealed this verse�.
en-asbab-al-nuzul-by-al-wahidi on 5:58en-asbab-al-nuzul-by-al-wahidicommentary on an ayah this subject surfaced
(And when ye call to prayer they take it for a jest and sport�) [5:58]. Said al-Kalbi: �When the caller to prayer, appointed by the Messenger of Allah, Allah bless him and give him peace, called to prayer, the Muslims stood up to perform it. Seeing this, the Jews used to comment: 'they stood up, may they never stand up! They prayed, may they never pray! They bowed down, may they never bow down!' They used to say this to mock the Muslims and make fun of them. And so Allah, exalted is He, revealed this verse�. Said al-Suddi: �This was revealed about a man from the helpers of Medina. Whenever he heard the caller to prayer say, 'I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah', he would say: 'May the liar be burnt!' One night, the servant of this man entered his house and brought some fire with him, while this man and his family were sleeping. A spark from this fire caused the whole h
en-al-jalalayn on 4:140en-al-jalalayncommentary on an ayah this subject surfaced
It has been revealed read active nazzala ‘He has revealed’ or passive nuzzila ‘It has been revealed’ to you in the Book in the Qur’ān in sūrat al-An‘ām Q. 668 that an has been softened and its subject omitted in other words read it as annahu ‘When you hear God’s signs the Qur’ān being disbelieved in and mocked do not sit with them that is the disbelievers and the mockers until they engage in some other talk for otherwise you if you were to sit with them would surely be like them’ in sinfulness. God will gather the hypocrites and disbelievers all together into Hell just as they were gathered together in this world in unbelief and mockery.
en-tafisr-ibn-kathir on 4:140en-tafisr-ibn-kathircommentary on an ayah this subject surfaced
Verily, those who believe, then disbelieve, then believe (again), and (again) disbelieve, and go on increasing in disbelief; Allah will not forgive them, nor guide them on the (right) way (137)Give to the hypocrites the tidings that there is for them a painful torment (138)Those who take disbelievers for friends instead of believers, do they seek honor with them? Verily, then to Allah belongs all honor (139)And it has already been revealed to you in the Book that when you hear the verses of Allah being denied and mocked at, then sit not with them, until they engage in talk other than that; certainly in that case you would be like them. Surely, Allah will collect the hypocrites and disbelievers all together in Hell (140)
Characteristics of the Hypocrites and Their Destination
Allah states that whoever embraces the faith, reverts from it, embraces it again, reverts from it and remains on
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701 to 725 of 816Schwartz SJ, Unger JB, Baezconde-Garbanati L, Zamboanga BL, Lorenzo-Blanco EI, Des Rosiers SE, Romero AJ, Cano MÁ, Gonzales-Backen MA, Córdova D, Piña-Watson BM, Huang S, Villamar JA, Soto DW, Pattarroyo M, Szapocznik J (2015)MEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usThe Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine97 citations Trajectories of cultural stressors and effects on mental health and substance use among Hispanic immigrant adolescents.
Purpose: We sought to determine the extent to which initial levels and over-time trajectories of cultural stressors (discrimination, negative context of reception, and bicultural stress) predicted well-being, internalizing symptoms, conduct problems, and health risk behaviors among recently immigrated Hispanic adolescents. Addressing this research objective involved creating a latent factor for cultural stressors, establishing invariance for this factor over time, estimating a growth curve for this factor over time, and examining the effects of initial levels (intercepts) and trajectories (slopes) of cultural stressors on adolescent outcomes.
Methods: A sample of 302 recently immigrated Hispanic adolescents in Miami (median of 1 year in the United States at baseline) and Los Angeles (median of 3 years in the United States at baseline) was recruited from public schools and assessed six ti…
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A Longitudinal Investigation of Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Psychosocial Mediators of Allostatic Load in Midlife Women: Findings From the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation.
Objectives: This research sought to assess racial and socioeconomic status (SES) differences in level and change in allostatic load (AL) over time in midlife women and to test whether psychosocial factors mediate these relationships. These factors were discrimination, perceived stress, and hostility.
Methods: Longitudinal data obtained from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation were used (n = 2063; mean age at baseline = 46.0 years). Latent growth curve models evaluated the impact of demographic, menopausal, and psychosocial variables on level and change in AL for 8 years.
Results: Direct effects: high levels of discrimination and hostility significantly predicted higher AL (path coefficients = 0.05 and 0.05, respectively). High perceived stress significantly predicted a faster rate of increase of AL (path coefficient = 0.06). Racial and SES differentials were present, with Afric…
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Perinatal and juvenile social environments interact to shape cognitive behaviour and neural phenotype in prairie voles.
Social environments experienced at different developmental stages profoundly shape adult behavioural and neural phenotypes, and may have important interactive effects. We asked if social experience before and after weaning influenced adult social cognition in male prairie voles. Animals were raised either with or without fathers and then either housed singly or in sibling pairs. Males that were socially deprived before (fatherless) and after (singly housed) weaning did not demonstrate social recognition or dissociate spatial from social information. We also examined oxytocin and vasopressin receptors (OTR and V1aR) in areas of the forebrain associated with social behaviour and memory. Pre- and post-wean experience differentially altered receptor expression in several structures. Of note, OTR in the lateral septum-an area in which oxytocin inhibits social recognition-was greatest in anima…
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Monk EP (2015)MEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usAJS; American journal of sociology106 citations The Cost of Color: Skin Color, Discrimination, and Health among African-Americans.
In this study, the author uses a nationally representative survey to examine the relationship(s) between skin tone, discrimination, and health among African-Americans. He finds that skin tone is a significant predictor of multiple forms of perceived discrimination (including perceived skin color discrimination from whites and blacks) and, in turn, these forms of perceived discrimination are significant predictors of key health outcomes, such as depression and self-rated mental and physical health. Intraracial health differences related to skin tone (and discrimination) often rival or even exceed disparities between blacks and whites as a whole. The author also finds that self-reported skin tone, conceptualized as a form of embodied social status, is a stronger predictor of perceived discrimination than interviewer-rated skin tone. He discusses the implications of these findings for the s…
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Perceived discrimination and physical, cognitive, and emotional health in older adulthood.
Objective: To examine whether perceived discrimination based on multiple personal characteristics is associated with physical, emotional, and cognitive health concurrently, prospectively, and with change in health over time among older adults.
Design: Longitudinal.
Setting: Health and Retirement Study (HRS).
Participants: Participants (N = 7,622) who completed the Leave-Behind Questionnaire as part of the 2006 HRS assessment (mean age 67 years); participants (N = 6,450) completed the same health measures again in 2010.
Measurements: Participants rated their everyday experience with discrimination and attributed those experiences to eight personal characteristics: race, ancestry, sex, age, weight, physical disability, appearance, and sexual orientation. At both the 2006 and 2010 assessments, participants completed measures of physical health (subjective health, disease burden), emotional …
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Neural correlates of experienced moral emotion: an fMRI investigation of emotion in response to prejudice feedback.
Guilt, shame, and embarrassment are quintessential moral emotions with important regulatory functions for the individual and society. Moral emotions are, however, difficult to study with neuroimaging methods because their elicitation is more intricate than that of basic emotions. Here, using functional MRI (fMRI), we employed a novel social prejudice paradigm to examine specific brain regions associated with real-time moral emotion, focusing on guilt and related moral-negative emotions. The paradigm induced intense moral-negative emotion (primarily guilt) in 22 low-prejudice individuals through preprogrammed feedback indicating implicit prejudice against Black and disabled people. fMRI data indicated that this experience of moral-negative emotion was associated with increased activity in anterior paralimbic structures, including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and anterior insula, in…
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'Just a little hint': bisexual-specific microaggressions and their connection to epistemic injustices.
A growing body of evidence indicates disproportionate rates of mental health disorders among bisexual women compared to both heterosexual and lesbian women. Such disparities are often attributed to stressors related to minority status, including experiences of prejudice and discrimination. Prior research has made little distinction between the prejudicial experiences of bisexual groups as compared to lesbian/gay groups. Based on qualitative data gathered in focus groups with 10, predominantly White, bisexual-identified women, which occurred in a large city in the USA, we posit that differences in prejudicial experiences do exist for bisexual groups, and that such differences reside in the realms of the epistemic, yet have very real implications for bisexual women's daily lived experiences. We discuss everyday slights and insults, also known as microaggressions, reported by the participan…
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The pathways from perceived discrimination to self-rated health: an investigation of the roles of distrust, social capital, and health behaviors.
Although there has been extensive research on the adverse impacts of perceived discrimination on health, it remains unclear how perceived discrimination gets under the skin. This paper develops a comprehensive structural equation model (SEM) by incorporating both the direct effects of perceived discrimination on self-rated health (SRH), a powerful predictor for many health outcomes, and the indirect effects of perceived discrimination on SRH through health care system distrust, neighborhood social capital, and health behaviors and health conditions. Applying SEM to 9880 adults (aged between 18 and 100) in the 2008 Southeastern Pennsylvania Household Health Survey, we not only confirmed the positive and direct association between discrimination and poor or fair SRH, but also verified two underlying mechanisms: 1) perceived discrimination is associated with lower neighborhood social capita…
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The impact of social deprivation on paranoia, hallucinations, mania and depression: the role of discrimination social support, stress and trust.
The negative implications of living in a socially unequal society are now well documented. However, there is poor understanding of the pathways from specific environmental risk to symptoms. Here we examine the associations between social deprivation, depression, and psychotic symptoms using the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey, a cross-sectional dataset including 7,353 individuals. In addition we looked at the mediating role of stress, discrimination, trust and lack of social support. We found that the participants' neighbourhood index of multiple deprivation (IMD) significantly predicted psychosis and depression. On inspection of specific psychotic symptoms, IMD predicted paranoia, but not hallucinations or hypomania. Stress and trust partially mediated the relationship between IMD and paranoid ideation. Stress, trust and a lack of social support fully mediated the relationship b…
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Discrimination and mental health among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States.
Health disparities among sexual minority groups, particularly mental health disparities, are well-documented. Numerous studies have demonstrated heightened prevalence of depressive and anxiety disorders among lesbian, gay, and bisexual groups as compared with heterosexuals. Some authors posit that these disparities are the result of the stress that prejudice and perceived discrimination can cause. The current study extends previous research by examining the associations between multiple types of discrimination, based on race or ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation, and past-year mental health disorders in a national sample of self-identified lesbian, gay, and bisexual women and men (n = 577). Findings suggest that different types of discrimination may be differentially associated with past-year mental health disorders. Notably, sexual orientation discrimination was associated with h…
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Implicit bias and its relation to health disparities: a teaching program and survey of medical students.
Background: The varying treatment of different patients by the same physician are referred to as within provider disparities. These differences can contribute to health disparities and are thought to be the result of implicit bias due to unintentional, unconscious assumptions.
Purposes: The purpose is to describe an educational intervention addressing both health disparities and physician implicit bias and the results of a subsequent survey exploring medical students' attitudes and beliefs toward subconscious bias and health disparities.
Methods: A single session within a larger required course was devoted to health disparities and the physician's potential to contribute to health disparities through implicit bias. Following the session the students were anonymously surveyed on their Implicit Association Test (IAT) results, their attitudes and experiences regarding the fairness of the he…
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Acculturation and perceived discrimination: predictors of substance use trajectories from adolescence to emerging adulthood among Hispanics.
Purpose: Previous studies have documented associations between cultural factors and substance use among Hispanic adolescents. Negative cultural experiences such as discrimination have been associated with an increased risk of substance use among Hispanic adolescents, whereas positive cultural resources, such as maintenance of Hispanic cultural orientations, have shown protective effects. However, few studies have examined the continuing influence of cultural factors on substance use from adolescence to emerging adulthood.
Methods: We surveyed a cohort of Hispanic adolescents in Southern California in 9th, 10th, and 11th grades, and 3-4 years after high school. Growth curve analyses were conducted to examine the effects of U.S. acculturation, Hispanic acculturation, ethnic identity, and perceived discrimination on change in tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use over time.
Results: Higher pe…
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Akdeniz C, Tost H, Streit F, Haddad L, Wüst S, Schäfer A, Schneider M, Rietschel M, Kirsch P, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2014)MEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usJAMA psychiatry112 citations Neuroimaging evidence for a role of neural social stress processing in ethnic minority-associated environmental risk.
Importance: Relative risk for the brain disorder schizophrenia is more than doubled in ethnic minorities, an effect that is evident across countries and linked to socially relevant cues such as skin color, making ethnic minority status a well-established social environmental risk factor. Pathoepidemiological models propose a role for chronic social stress and perceived discrimination for mental health risk in ethnic minorities, but the neurobiology is unexplored.
Objective: To study neural social stress processing, using functional magnetic resonance imaging, and associations with perceived discrimination in ethnic minority individuals.
Design, setting, and participants: Cross-sectional design in a university setting using 3 validated paradigms to challenge neural social stress processing and, to probe for specificity, emotional and cognitive brain functions. Healthy participants include…
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The link between ethnicity, social disadvantage and mental health problems in a school-based multiethnic sample of children in The Netherlands.
To investigate to what extent differences in prevalence and types of mental health problems between ethnic minority and majority youth can be explained by social disadvantage. Mental health problems were assessed in a sample of 1,278 schoolchildren (55% Dutch, 32% Moroccan and 13% Turkish; mean age: 12.9 ± 1.8) using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire self-report and teacher report. Measures of family socioeconomic status, neighbourhood deprivation, perceived discrimination, family structure, repeating a school year, housing stability and neighbourhood urbanization were used as indicators of social disadvantage, based on which a cumulative index was created. Ethnic minority youth had more externalizing and fewer internalizing problems than majority youth. Perceived discrimination and living in an unstable social environment were associated with mental health problems, independe…
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Moral elevation reduces prejudice against gay men.
Disgust is linked to social evaluation. People with higher disgust sensitivity exhibit more sexual prejudice, and inducing disgust increases sexual prejudice. We tested whether inducing moral elevation, the theoretical opposite of disgust, would reduce sexual prejudice. In four studies (N = 3622), we induced elevation with inspiring videos and then measured sexual prejudice with implicit and explicit measures. Compared to control videos that elicited no particular affective state, we found that elevation reduced implicit and explicit sexual prejudice, albeit very slightly. No effect was observed when the target of social evaluation was changed to race (Black-White). Inducing amusement, another positive emotion, did not significantly affect sexual prejudice. We conclude that elevation weakly but reliably reduces prejudice towards gay men.
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Psychological foundations of xenophilia: the role of major personality traits in predicting favorable attitudes toward cross-cultural contact and exploration.
Building on an integration of research findings on intergroup behavior from multiple fields of scientific inquiry (biological and cultural paleoanthropology, social psychology), as well as research on the HEXACO personality framework (e.g., Ashton & Lee, 2007), 3 independent studies (total N = 1,007) were conducted to introduce and test a fresh personality perspective on human xenophilia. Even though the studies focused on different criteria (Study 1: favorable attitudes toward contact with immigrants, Study 2: habitual cross-cultural exploration, Study 3: favorable attitudes toward contact with indigenous people) and employed different operationalizations of major personality traits (the HEXACO Personality Inventory-Revised [HEXACO-PI-R], the 10-item Big Five Inventory [BFI-10]) results were remarkably similar. First, path analyses confirmed that major personality traits were significan…
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Experiences of transgender-related discrimination and implications for health: results from the Virginia Transgender Health Initiative Study.
Objectives: We examined relationships between social determinants of health and experiences of transgender-related discrimination reported by transgender people in Virginia.
Methods: In 2005 through 2006, 387 self-identified transgender people completed a statewide health needs assessment; 350 who completed eligibility questions were included in this examination of factors associated with experiences of discrimination in health care, employment, or housing. We fit multivariate logistic regression models using generalized estimating equations to adjust for survey modality (online vs paper).
Results: Of participants, 41% (n = 143) reported experiences of transgender-related discrimination. Factors associated with transgender-related discrimination were geographic context, gender (female-to male spectrum vs male-to-female spectrum), low socioeconomic status, being a racial/ethnic minority, …
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Cognitive debiasing 2: impediments to and strategies for change.
In a companion paper, we proposed that cognitive debiasing is a skill essential in developing sound clinical reasoning to mitigate the incidence of diagnostic failure. We reviewed the origins of cognitive biases and some proposed mechanisms for how debiasing processes might work. In this paper, we first outline a general schema of how cognitive change occurs and the constraints that may apply. We review a variety of individual factors, many of them biases themselves, which may be impediments to change. We then examine the major strategies that have been developed in the social sciences and in medicine to achieve cognitive and affective debiasing, including the important concept of forcing functions. The abundance and rich variety of approaches that exist in the literature and in individual clinical domains illustrate the difficulties inherent in achieving cognitive change, and also the n…
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Kwon P (2013)MEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usPersonality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc92 citations Resilience in lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals.
To promote psychological health among lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals, more comprehensive research on resilience factors in LGB individuals is needed. This article presents a theoretical framework based on the existing literature, with an eye toward guiding future research in this area. Social support clearly serves as a resilience factor for LGB individuals, in part through its ability to lower reactivity to prejudice. Social support is particularly effective when it specifically supports people's sexual orientation and is congruent with individuals' developmental needs. The ability to accept emotions and to process them in an insightful manner also buffers the negative impact of prejudice. In addition, hope and optimism allow LGB individuals to maintain psychological health when faced with prejudice.
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Chou KL (2012)MEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usJournal of affective disorders61 citations Perceived discrimination and depression among new migrants to Hong Kong: the moderating role of social support and neighborhood collective efficacy.
Background: Although it is well known that perceived discrimination is a risk factor contributing to depressive symptoms among immigrants, most previous studies (1) did not distinguish between discrimination based on immigrant status and race and (2) used cross-sectional data.
Aims: To address these limitations, the present study examined whether perceived discrimination affects depressive symptomatology in a representative sample of newly arrived immigrants from Mainland China to Hong Kong using longitudinal data over a period of one year.
Methods: A representative sample of 347 migrants aged 18 and older were interviewed face to face in 2007 and 2008. The 20-item Center for Epidemiology Studies of Depression (CES-D) scale was used to measure depressive symptoms and a series of sociodemographic questions (age, gender, marital status, education, and personal income), stress due to percei…
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Challenges, coping strategies, and unmet needs of families with a child with autism spectrum disorder in Goa, India.
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are increasingly recognized in developing countries like India. However, little is known about the experiences of parents raising a child with ASD. This study aimed to describe the experiences of families in Goa, India with a view to understanding the unmet needs of families raising a child with ASD. Twenty in-depth interviews and nine focus group discussions were carried out with families of children with ASD and key community stakeholders such as special educators, teachers, and parents of typically developing children. This qualitative data was triangulated to explore the experiences, life impact, and unmet needs of raising a child with ASD. Key findings suggest that raising a child with ASD puts a tremendous strain on families due to competing commitments, often leading to initial social withdrawal with later reintegration into social networks. Second,…
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Denise EJ (2012)MEDLINE-indexed journal, not yet read by usJournal of health and social behavior147 citations Multiple forms of perceived discrimination and health among adolescents and young adults.
Research on perceived discrimination has overwhelmingly focused on one form of discrimination, especially race discrimination, in isolation from other forms. The present article uses data from the Black Youth Culture Survey, a nationally representative, racially and ethnically diverse sample of 1,052 adolescents and young adults to investigate the prevalence, distribution, and mental and physical health consequences of multiple forms of perceived discrimination. The findings suggest that disadvantaged groups, especially multiply disadvantaged youth, face greater exposure to multiple forms of discrimination than their more privileged counterparts. The experience of multiple forms of discrimination is associated with worse mental and physical health above the effect of only one form and contributes to the relationship between multiple disadvantaged statuses and health. These findings sugge…
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Marginalized identities, discrimination burden, and mental health: empirical exploration of an interpersonal-level approach to modeling intersectionality.
Intersectionality is a term used to describe the intersecting effects of race, class, gender, and other marginalizing characteristics that contribute to social identity and affect health. Adverse health effects are thought to occur via social processes including discrimination and structural inequalities (i.e., reduced opportunities for education and income). Although intersectionality has been well-described conceptually, approaches to modeling it in quantitative studies of health outcomes are still emerging. Strategies to date have focused on modeling demographic characteristics as proxies for structural inequality. Our objective was to extend these methodological efforts by modeling intersectionality across three levels: structural, contextual, and interpersonal, consistent with a social-ecological framework. We conducted a secondary analysis of a database that included two components…
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Internalized weight bias in obese patients with binge eating disorder: associations with eating disturbances and psychological functioning.
Objective: Widespread bias against obese individuals may lead to the internalization of weight bias in obese persons. This study examined correlates of internalized weight bias (IWB) in obese patients with binge eating disorder (BED).
Method: One hundred treatment-seeking obese patients with BED were administered with the eating disorders examination interview and questionnaires assessing IWB, fat phobia, depression, and self-esteem.
Results: The mean IWB score in this group of patients with BED was significantly greater than the mean IWB score observed previously in a community sample of overweight adults. IWB was positively associated with eating disorder psychopathology, fat phobia, and depression, and negatively associated with self-esteem. IWB made significant independent contributions to the variance in eating disorder psychopathology even after accounting for fat phobia, depressio…
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The pervasive effects of racism: experiences of racial discrimination in New Zealand over time and associations with multiple health domains.
Self-reported experience of racial discrimination has been linked to a range of health outcomes in various countries and for different ethnic groups. This study builds on previous work in New Zealand to further investigate the prevalence of self-reported experience of racial discrimination by ethnicity, changes over time and associations with multiple health measures. The study uses data from the 2002/03 (n=12,500) and 2006/07 (n=12,488) New Zealand Health Surveys, nationally representative population-based surveys of adults (15+ years). Reported experience of racial discrimination was measured in both surveys and covered 5 items: experience of an ethnically motivated physical or verbal attack; and unfair treatment because of ethnicity by a health professional, in work, or when gaining housing. Ethnicity was classified as Maori, Pacific, Asian or European. Health indicators included meas…
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